इंग्रजी English (Compulsory)

Quick summary

Many Indian students make the same errors in English because of direct translation from Marathi or Hindi and confusion over grammar rules. This topic lists common errors in nouns, pronouns, verbs, tenses, articles, prepositions and word choice, with the correct forms and the rule behind each.

Key points

• Uncountable nouns have no plural: information, advice, furniture, equipment, luggage, news, homework. ("The news is good.")
• Plural-only nouns: scissors, trousers, spectacles, goods — take plural verbs.
• Subject–verb agreement with "one of", "each", "every": singular verb.
• Tense errors: do not use present continuous for state verbs (know, like, understand). ✗ "I am knowing him." ✓ "I know him."
• "Since" is used with a point of time, "for" with a period: "since 2020", "for three years" — both with present perfect.
• Do not use the present perfect with a definite past time. ✗ "I have seen him yesterday." ✓ "I saw him yesterday."
• Double comparatives/negatives: ✗ "more better", ✓ "better"; ✗ "I don't know nothing", ✓ "I don't know anything."
• Question tags: positive statement → negative tag: "You are coming, aren't you?"
• Articles: "an hour", "a university", "the Ganga"; no article before names of subjects ("I like Microbiology").
• Prepositions: "discuss the matter" (not "discuss about"), "reach the station" (not "reach to"), "married to" (not "married with"), "good at", "angry with a person", "angry at/about a thing".
• Indian English expressions to avoid in formal writing: "do the needful", "revert back", "cousin brother", "prepone" (common in India but not standard elsewhere), "pass out" (means "faint" in standard English; use "graduate").
• Redundancy: "return back", "repeat again", "free gift", "past history".

Important terms

• Redundancy – using extra words with the same meaning.
• Uncountable noun – noun that cannot be counted directly.
• State verb – verb showing a state, not an action (know, belong, love).
• Question tag – short question at the end of a statement.
• Mother-tongue influence – errors from translating one's first language.

Language study

5 important questions

Q1. Correct: "The furnitures in the lab is new."

"The furniture in the lab is new." (Furniture is uncountable; no plural.)

Q2. Correct: "I have completed my practical yesterday."

"I completed my practical yesterday." (A definite past time takes the simple past.)

Q3. Correct the following sentences and state the rule: (a) Neither of them were present. (b) She is more taller than her sister. (c) Did you went to college?

• (a) Neither of them was present — "neither" is singular.
• (b) She is taller than her sister — no double comparative.
• (c) Did you go to college? — base form after "did".

Q4. Explain five common errors caused by mother-tongue influence.

• "Myself Priya" for "I am Priya".
• "Cousin brother/sister" for "cousin".
• "Do one thing…" as a direct translation.
• "He is having a car" from continuous structure in Hindi.
• Wrong prepositions: "married with", "discuss about".
• Remedy: read standard English, learn sentence patterns.

Q5. Correct and explain: (a) I am knowing the answer. (b) He gave me an advice. (c) We reached to Nagpur at 5. (d) I am working here for two years.

• (a) I know the answer — state verb.
• (b) He gave me some advice / a piece of advice — uncountable.
• (c) We reached Nagpur at 5 — no "to" after reach.
• (d) I have been working here for two years — present perfect continuous.

Exam tip

In correction questions, underline the corrected word and write the rule in a few words — this earns full marks.

Quick summary

Note-making means writing the main ideas of a passage you read in a short, organised form; note-taking means writing down the key points of a lecture or talk while listening. Both save time in revision and improve understanding. This topic gives the methods, abbreviations and a solved format.

Key points

• Note-taking happens while listening (lectures, seminars, meetings); note-making happens while reading (books, articles, journals).
• Good notes are brief, clear, organised and in your own words.
• Read or listen for the main idea first; then pick supporting points and examples.
• Use a heading, sub-headings and numbered points with indentation (1, 1.1, 1.2…).
• Use phrases, not full sentences; leave out articles and unnecessary words.
• Use standard abbreviations and symbols: e.g., i.e., ∴ (therefore), → (leads to), ↑ (increase), ↓ (decrease), = , ≠ , approx., govt., info., env.
• Exams often ask for notes with at least four abbreviations and a key explaining them, followed by a summary.
• Cornell method: divide the page into a notes column, a cue column (key words, questions) and a summary at the bottom.
• Mind maps put the main topic in the centre with branches for sub-topics; useful for revision.
• Review and complete your notes within 24 hours of the lecture.

Important terms

• Abbreviation – a short form of a word (dept. for department).
• Key – a list explaining the abbreviations used.
• Cornell notes – a three-part note format developed at Cornell University.
• Mind map – a diagram linking ideas around a central topic.
• Summary – a short paragraph giving the gist in full sentences.

Language study

Sample notes on a passage about plastic pollution

5 important questions

Q1. Distinguish between note-making and note-taking.

Note-making is done while reading a written text; note-taking is done while listening to a lecture or talk.

Q2. Give abbreviations for: government, information, approximately, department.

govt., info., approx., dept.

Q3. What are the qualities of good notes?

• Short and to the point.
• Logical structure: heading, sub-headings, numbering.
• Own words; key terms kept.
• Abbreviations with a key.
• Neat layout for quick revision.

Q4. Explain the steps of making notes from a passage.

• Read the passage twice.
• Find the main idea and give a title.
• Identify sub-topics and supporting points.
• Write in phrases with numbering and indentation.
• Use abbreviations and write a key.
• Write a short summary if asked.

Q5. Describe the Cornell method and the mind-map method of note-taking.

• Cornell: page divided into cue, notes and summary sections; review by covering notes and using cues.
• Mind map: central topic, branches, colours, key words.
• Advantages of each.
• When to use which (lecture vs revision).

Exam tip

In note-making questions, a title, numbered sub-headings, at least four abbreviations and a key are compulsory; missing any one costs marks.

Quick summary

Listening is the active process of receiving, understanding, remembering and responding to spoken messages. It is different from simply hearing. This topic covers the process and types of listening, barriers, traits of a good listener, and how to take notes while listening to lectures.

Key points

• Hearing is the physical act of sound reaching the ears; listening needs attention and understanding.
• Listening process: receiving → understanding (interpreting) → remembering → evaluating → responding (feedback). (Often called the HURIER model: Hearing, Understanding, Remembering, Interpreting, Evaluating, Responding.)
• Active listening – full attention, feedback, asking questions.
• Passive listening – hearing without responding.
• Informational / comprehensive – to learn (lectures).
• Critical / evaluative – to judge arguments (debates, advertisements).
• Empathetic / therapeutic – to understand feelings (supporting a friend).
• Appreciative – for enjoyment (music, poetry).
• Selective – hearing only what one wants to hear (a bad habit).
• Types of listening:
• Barriers: noise, distractions (phone), fatigue, prejudice against the speaker, daydreaming, preparing your reply while the other is talking, poor acoustics, unfamiliar accent or vocabulary, information overload.
• Good listener: maintains eye contact, nods, does not interrupt, asks clarifying questions, paraphrases ("So you mean…"), keeps an open mind, notes key points.
• Note-taking while listening: write key words, not full sentences; use abbreviations and symbols (→, ∴, =, ↑); leave space; review notes the same day.
• Cornell note-taking method: page divided into a narrow cue column (left), main notes (right) and a summary at the bottom.

Important terms

• Active listening – attentive listening with feedback.
• Paraphrasing – repeating the speaker's idea in your own words to confirm understanding.
• Empathy – understanding another person's feelings.
• Feedback – listener's verbal or non-verbal response.
• Selective listening – attending only to parts of a message.

Language study

Phrases of an active listener

• Clarifying: "Could you please explain that again?"
• Paraphrasing: "So, you are saying that the practical is postponed to Friday?"
• Showing interest: "I see.", "That's interesting.", "Go on."
• Empathy: "That must have been difficult."

Sample lecture notes (key words and symbols)

5 important questions

Q1. Differentiate hearing and listening.

Hearing is the passive, physical process of perceiving sound. Listening is an active mental process of paying attention, understanding and responding to what is heard.

Q2. What is empathetic listening?

Listening to understand the speaker's feelings and point of view without judging, as when a friend shares a problem.

Q3. Explain the barriers to effective listening.

• Physical: noise, poor sound system.
• Physiological: tiredness, hearing problems.
• Psychological: prejudice, worry, daydreaming.
• Language: accent, difficult vocabulary.
• Behavioural: interrupting, planning reply, phone use.
• Overcoming: sit in front, remove distractions, take notes, ask questions.

Q4. Describe the qualities of a good listener.

• Pays full attention, eye contact.
• Doesn't interrupt.
• Asks clarifying questions.
• Paraphrases to confirm.
• Shows interest by nodding.
• Open-minded, non-judgemental.
• Notes key points; responds appropriately.

Q5. How should a student take notes during a lecture?

• Prepare: read the topic beforehand.
• Write key words and headings.
• Use abbreviations and symbols.
• Use the Cornell format.
• Mark doubts with "?".
• Review and complete notes the same day.

Exam tip

Name the types of listening with one example each; examiners often ask for "types of listening" as a short note.

Quick summary

Reading scientific texts — textbooks, research papers, lab manuals and science articles — needs special strategies because they are dense with terms, data and arguments. This topic explains the structure of a research paper, the SQ3R method, how to read graphs and tables, making notes, and judging whether a source is reliable.

Key points

• Scientific texts are dense: many technical terms, numbers, abbreviations, figures and references.
• Research paper structure: Title, Authors, Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgements, References.
• Smart reading order for a research paper: title → abstract → figures and tables → conclusion → introduction → results and discussion → methods (only if you need details).
• SQ3R method (Francis Robinson): Survey (glance at headings and figures), Question (turn headings into questions), Read (actively, to answer), Recite (say or write answers from memory), Review (revise regularly).
• Reading graphs: check title, axes and units, scale, legend; then describe the trend (increases, decreases, peaks, remains constant).
• Reading tables: read title and column headings first; look for highest, lowest and patterns.
• Learn word roots to decode terms: hydro-lysis = breaking by water; thermo-phile = heat-loving.
• Primary sources (original research papers) vs secondary sources (textbooks, review articles) vs tertiary sources (encyclopaedias).
• Judging reliability: peer-reviewed journal, known author or institution, date (is it current?), data and references given, no exaggerated claims, not from an anonymous forward or social media post.
• Make notes as concept maps, flowcharts or tables, in your own words.

Important terms

• Peer review – checking of a research paper by other experts before publication.
• Primary source – original report of research.
• Review article – paper summarising many studies on a topic.
• Citation – reference to a source.
• Legend – key that explains symbols or colours in a figure.

Language study

Describing a graph

• "The graph shows the effect of temperature on enzyme activity."
• "Activity increases gradually from 20 °C to 37 °C."
• "It reaches a peak at about 37 °C."
• "After that, it falls sharply, probably because the enzyme is denatured."

Verbs of trend: rise, increase, grow, climb / fall, drop, decline, decrease / remain steady, level off / peak, reach a maximum.

Hedging language in science (shows caution): may, might, suggest, appear, likely, possibly — "These results suggest that…"

5 important questions

Q1. What is the SQ3R method?

A reading strategy with five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review. It helps students read textbooks actively and remember more.

Q2. What is peer review?

The evaluation of a research paper by independent experts in the same field before it is published, to check its quality and accuracy.

Q3. Explain the structure of a research paper.

• Title and authors.
• Abstract.
• Introduction: background, aim.
• Materials and methods.
• Results: data, tables, figures.
• Discussion: meaning, comparison.
• Conclusion, acknowledgements, references.

Q4. How should a student read and interpret a graph?

• Read the title.
• Check axes, variables and units.
• Note scale and legend.
• Describe the overall trend.
• Identify maximum, minimum, sudden changes.
• Explain the trend with science.
• Use trend verbs and hedging words.

Q5. How can we judge the reliability of a scientific source?

• Published in a peer-reviewed journal or by a known publisher.
• Authors' qualifications and institution.
• Date of publication.
• Evidence: data, methods, references.
• Balanced language, no sensational claims.
• Cross-check with other sources.
• Avoid unverified social media forwards.

Exam tip

When describing graphs, use trend verbs plus numbers from the axes; avoid saying only "it goes up".

Quick summary

Science communication means explaining scientific ideas to non-experts — the public, farmers, school students, policymakers — in a clear and interesting way. This topic covers the purpose of science communication, the difference between technical and popular writing, forms (articles, posters, blogs, talks, social media), techniques like analogies and storytelling, and avoiding misinformation.

Key points

• Purpose: build public understanding of science, support informed decisions (health, environment, farming), fight myths and fake news, and inspire students.
• Know the audience: a farmer, a Class 8 student and a health officer need different words and examples.
• Technical vs popular writing: technical writing is for experts, uses jargon and formal structure; popular writing uses everyday words, stories, and starts with why it matters.
• Inverted pyramid: put the most important point first, then details — as news reports do.
• Techniques: analogies ("antibodies are like security guards who recognise a thief's face"), stories, local examples, questions, simple visuals, numbers made meaningful.
• Explain jargon or avoid it: say "germs" or "microbes" before "pathogenic bacteria", and explain once.
• Accuracy is not optional: simplifying must not distort facts. Do not over-claim ("cure for cancer found!") from one small study.
• Forms: newspaper articles, blogs, posters, infographics, pamphlets, radio talks, short videos, social media posts, public lectures, science exhibitions.
• Indian examples: National Science Day (28 February, marks C. V. Raman's discovery of the Raman effect); Vigyan Prasar promotes science communication; science magazines like Vigyan Pragati (Hindi).
• Always mention reliable sources and separate facts from opinion.

Important terms

• Popular science – science explained for the general public.
• Analogy – comparing a new idea with something familiar.
• Infographic – picture combining data and short text.
• Misinformation – false information spread without intent; disinformation – false information spread on purpose.
• Inverted pyramid – most important information first.

Language study

Technical vs popular

• Technical: "Lactic acid bacteria ferment lactose to lactic acid, lowering the pH and coagulating casein."
• Popular: "When you add a spoon of curd to warm milk, tiny friendly bacteria eat the milk sugar and make acid. The acid makes the milk thick — that's how curd forms overnight."

Sample poster text: "Wash Hands, Stop Germs"

• Headline: Clean Hands Save Lives
• When: before eating, after toilet, after coughing
• How: soap + water, 20 seconds, all parts of the hand
• Why: stops diarrhoea, flu and many infections

Useful openers: "Have you ever wondered why…?", "Imagine…", "Here is a surprising fact…"

5 important questions

Q1. What is science communication?

The practice of sharing scientific knowledge with non-specialist audiences in a clear, accurate and engaging way, through articles, talks, posters, media and other forms.

Q2. What is an analogy? Give one example from biology.

An analogy explains a new idea by comparing it with something familiar. Example: "The cell membrane is like a security gate that lets only certain things in and out."

Q3. Differentiate technical writing and popular science writing.

• Audience: experts vs general public.
• Language: jargon vs everyday words.
• Structure: IMRaD vs story / inverted pyramid.
• Tone: formal vs friendly.
• Purpose: record and share results vs explain and engage.
• Visuals: graphs and data tables vs simple pictures, infographics.

Q4. Write a short article (outline) for villagers on biofertilizers.

• Catchy title: "Friendly Bacteria for Your Fields".
• Problem: chemical fertilizers are costly and harm soil over time.
• Explanation: some bacteria, like Rhizobium and Azotobacter, add nitrogen to soil.
• How to use: seed treatment, soil application, as per agriculture officer's advice.
• Benefits: cheaper, eco-friendly, improve soil.
• Where to get: agricultural department or Krishi Vigyan Kendra.

Q5. Explain the techniques of effective science communication.

• Audience analysis.
• Simple language, explain jargon.
• Analogies and stories.
• Visuals and infographics.
• Inverted pyramid structure.
• Accuracy and sources.
• Interaction: questions, demonstrations.

Exam tip

When asked to write for the public, use a catchy title, short sentences and at least one analogy — and keep every fact correct.

Quick summary

A blog is a website or web page where a person or organisation regularly publishes informal articles called posts. Blog writing is now part of professional communication: scientists, companies and students use blogs to share ideas, explain research and build an online presence. This topic covers the features, structure and style of a good blog post with an example.

Key points

• The word blog comes from "web log". Each entry is a post, shown with the newest first.
• Blogs can be personal, professional, educational/science, travel, food, technology or business blogs.
• A good post has a catchy title, an engaging introduction (hook), a body with sub-headings and short paragraphs, and a conclusion with a call to action ("Share your views in the comments").
• Style is conversational, friendly and clear; using "you" and "I" is acceptable.
• Keep paragraphs short (2–4 sentences); use bullet points, examples, images and links for easy reading on phones.
• SEO (search engine optimisation): use key words naturally in the title and headings so that search engines can find the post.
• Respect copyright: give credit to sources and use images you are allowed to use.
• Check facts, especially in science blogs; never spread misinformation.
• Blogs invite interaction through comments and sharing on social media.
• Popular free platforms include Blogger, WordPress and Medium.

Important terms

• Post – one article on a blog.
• Blogger – a person who writes a blog.
• Hook – an opening line that grabs attention.
• Tags – key words attached to a post to group related posts.
• Call to action – asking readers to comment, share or act.

Language study

Sample blog post outline: "5 Easy Ways to Save Water at Home"

• Hook: "Did you know a dripping tap can waste hundreds of litres of water in a month?"
• Intro: why water saving matters in Vidarbha's dry summers.
• Body (sub-headings): fix leaks; use a bucket, not a shower; reuse RO waste water for mopping; water plants in the evening; collect rainwater.
• Conclusion: small habits, big change.
• Call to action: "Which tip will you try first? Tell me in the comments."
• Tags: #WaterConservation #Environment #Nagpur

Useful phrases: "Let's take a look at…", "Here's the thing…", "In a nutshell…", "What do you think?"

5 important questions

Q1. What is a blog?

A blog is a website or page on which a person or group regularly publishes informal posts on a topic, with the newest post shown first and readers able to comment.

Q2. What is a call to action in a blog?

It is a closing line that asks readers to do something, such as comment, share the post, subscribe or try an idea.

Q3. Explain the structure of a good blog post.

• Catchy title with key words.
• Hook and short introduction.
• Body with sub-headings, short paragraphs, bullets, examples.
• Visuals and links where useful.
• Conclusion and call to action.
• Tags.

Q4. Write a blog post on "Why Every Student Should Learn Basic Coding".

• Title and hook.
• Introduction: digital world, jobs.
• Points: logical thinking, career options, automation of lab data, freelancing, free resources.
• Personal touch or example.
• Conclusion and call to action.

Q5. Distinguish between a blog and a formal essay or article.

• Tone: conversational vs formal.
• Medium: online, interactive vs print/academic.
• Structure: sub-headings, bullets, visuals vs continuous paragraphs.
• Length and frequency.
• Audience interaction through comments.
• SEO and tags.

Exam tip

In a blog question, show the format: title, date and author line, sub-headings, a friendly tone and a call to action at the end.

Quick summary

Time management is planning and controlling how we use our time to reach goals; stress management is recognising and reducing harmful pressure. Students juggle lectures, practicals, assignments and exams, so these two soft skills are closely linked: poor time use creates stress, and stress wastes time. This topic gives the main techniques for both.

Key points

Time management

• Set SMART goals: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound.
• Prioritise with the Eisenhower Matrix: (1) urgent and important – do now; (2) important, not urgent – plan; (3) urgent, not important – delegate or reduce; (4) neither – drop.
• Make to-do lists and a weekly timetable; break big tasks into small steps.
• The Pomodoro technique: about 25 minutes of focused work, then a 5-minute break; a longer break after four rounds.
• The Pareto principle (80/20 rule): about 80% of results often come from 20% of efforts; focus on the vital few tasks.
• Avoid procrastination and time-wasters: excessive social media, unplanned meetings, multitasking.

Stress management

• Stress is the body's response to a demand or threat. Some stress (eustress) motivates; too much (distress) harms health and performance.
• Signs: headache, poor sleep, irritability, low concentration, loss of appetite.
• Causes for students: exams, deadlines, results, family expectations, money, relationships, career worries.
• Remedies: regular exercise, yoga and pranayama, enough sleep (7–8 hours), healthy diet, time planning, talking to friends, family or counsellors, hobbies, positive thinking, limiting screen time.
• Seek professional help when stress feels unmanageable.

Important terms

• Procrastination – putting off tasks unnecessarily.
• Prioritisation – deciding the order of tasks by importance.
• Eustress – positive, motivating stress.
• Distress – harmful stress.
• Burnout – exhaustion from long-term stress.

Language study

Eisenhower Matrix

5 important questions

Q1. What are SMART goals?

Goals that are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-bound, e.g. "Solve 20 organic reactions every day for the next two weeks."

Q2. What is the Pomodoro technique?

A time-management method of working in focused blocks of about 25 minutes followed by short breaks, with a longer break after four blocks.

Q3. Explain the importance of time management for students.

• Completes syllabus and assignments on time.
• Balance of study, practicals, rest and hobbies.
• Reduces stress and last-minute panic.
• Improves results and confidence.
• Builds discipline for professional life.

Q4. What is stress? Explain its causes and ways to manage it.

• Definition; eustress and distress.
• Physical and emotional signs.
• Causes for students.
• Management techniques: exercise, yoga, sleep, planning, support, hobbies.
• When to seek counselling.

Q5. Describe any four techniques of time management.

• SMART goals.
• Eisenhower Matrix.
• To-do lists and timetables.
• Pomodoro technique.
• 80/20 rule.
• Example of applying each to exam preparation.

Exam tip

Draw the Eisenhower Matrix as a small table in long answers; a diagram makes the answer stand out and is quick to write.

Quick summary

Leadership is the ability to guide, motivate and influence people towards a shared goal; team building is the process of turning a group of individuals into a cooperative, effective team. Both are key soft skills for professional success, from a college project group to a research lab or company. This topic covers qualities and styles of leaders, stages of team development and ways to build strong teams.

Key points

• A leader sets direction, motivates, communicates, takes decisions and accepts responsibility; a manager mainly plans, organises and controls work. Good professionals combine both.
• Qualities of a good leader: vision, integrity, communication, confidence, empathy, decision-making, accountability, ability to delegate, positive attitude.
• Leadership styles (Kurt Lewin's classic three): autocratic (leader decides alone), democratic/participative (leader consults the team), laissez-faire (team is given freedom). Other common styles: transformational (inspires change) and servant leadership (serves the team's needs first).
• A team is a small group with complementary skills, a common goal and mutual responsibility.
• Tuckman's stages of team development (1965): forming (getting to know each other), storming (conflicts), norming (rules and roles agreed), performing (working smoothly); adjourning was added in 1977.
• Team building activities: clear goals and roles, open communication, trust, regular meetings, recognising contributions, team games and outings, fair conflict resolution.
• Benefits of teamwork: more ideas, sharing of workload, better problem-solving, learning from each other, higher motivation.
• Barriers: ego clashes, poor communication, unclear roles, free-riders, lack of trust.

Important terms

• Delegation – giving tasks and authority to team members.
• Synergy – the team achieving more together than members alone.
• Conflict resolution – settling disagreements fairly.
• Motivation – the drive that makes people act.
• Accountability – being answerable for results.

Language study

5 important questions

Q1. What is team building?

It is the process of developing trust, cooperation and clear roles among members so that a group works effectively towards a common goal.

Q2. Name Tuckman's stages of team development.

Forming, storming, norming, performing, and later adjourning.

Q3. Explain the qualities of a good leader.

• Vision and goal-setting.
• Honesty and integrity.
• Clear communication and listening.
• Decision-making and problem-solving.
• Empathy and motivation.
• Delegation and accountability.
• Example from college or public life.

Q4. Describe the main leadership styles with their merits and demerits.

• Autocratic: quick decisions, but low morale.
• Democratic: involvement and ideas, but slower.
• Laissez-faire: freedom and creativity, but risk of confusion.
• Transformational and servant leadership briefly.
• Conclusion: a good leader adapts style to the situation.

Q5. How can a team be made effective? Explain the role of team building.

• Common goal and clear roles.
• Open communication and trust.
• Respect for diversity of skills.
• Fair conflict resolution.
• Recognition and motivation.
• Stages of development and activities that help each stage.

Exam tip

Mention Tuckman's stages and Lewin's three styles by name; they are standard points examiners expect in leadership and team answers.

Quick summary

Negotiation is a discussion between two or more parties to reach an agreement acceptable to all. Etiquette is the set of polite rules of behaviour expected in society and at work. Both are part of professional soft skills: a scientist may negotiate a project budget, a job offer or a purchase, and etiquette makes every interaction smooth and respectful.

Key points

Negotiation

• Negotiation is used in salary talks, business deals, purchases, team decisions and settling conflicts.
• Types: distributive (win–lose, sharing a fixed amount, e.g. bargaining over price) and integrative (win–win, finding solutions that satisfy both sides' interests).
• Stages: preparation → opening and exchanging information → bargaining → closing and agreement → implementation.
• Preparation: know your goals, your limits, the other side's needs, and your BATNA (Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement), a term from Fisher and Ury's book Getting to Yes (1981).
• Skills: active listening, clear communication, patience, emotional control, problem-solving, persuasion, flexibility.
• Focus on interests, not positions; separate the people from the problem; look for options that benefit both.
• Stay polite, avoid threats, and put the agreement in writing.

Etiquette

• Workplace etiquette: punctuality, proper dress, greeting colleagues, respecting others' time and space, keeping the workplace clean.
• Telephone etiquette: greet, introduce yourself, speak clearly, listen, take messages, end politely.
• Email (netiquette): clear subject, polite salutation, short paragraphs, no capital-letter "shouting", proper sign-off, reply in time.
• Meeting etiquette: be on time, mobile on silent, do not interrupt, contribute briefly.
• Dining and social etiquette: wait for others, avoid loud talk, thank the host.

Important terms

• BATNA – your best option if the negotiation fails.
• Win–win – an outcome good for both sides.
• Compromise – each side gives up something.
• Netiquette – etiquette for online communication.
• Protocol – formal rules of conduct in official settings.

Language study

Polite negotiation phrases

• "Could we look at another option?"
• "I understand your concern. What if we…?"
• "That's a fair point; however, our budget allows…"
• "Can we agree on…?"
• "Let's put this in writing."

5 important questions

Q1. What is BATNA?

Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement: the best course of action available to you if the negotiation does not succeed. Knowing it gives strength and sets your limit.

Q2. Give four rules of email etiquette.

Write a clear subject line; use a polite greeting and sign-off; keep the message short and correct; do not type in all capital letters.

Q3. Explain the stages of negotiation.

• Preparation: goals, limits, information, BATNA.
• Opening: stating positions politely.
• Bargaining: exchanging offers, problem-solving.
• Closing: agreement and confirmation.
• Implementation and follow-up.

Q4. Distinguish between distributive and integrative negotiation.

• Win–lose vs win–win.
• Fixed pie vs expanding options.
• Positions vs interests.
• Short-term vs long-term relationship.
• Examples: buying a used bike vs planning a joint project.

Q5. Write a note on workplace etiquette.

• Punctuality and attendance.
• Dress and grooming.
• Respectful language; no gossip.
• Telephone and email manners.
• Meeting behaviour.
• Respect for diversity and personal space.

Exam tip

For negotiation answers, mention win–win and BATNA; for etiquette answers, divide points under workplace, telephone, email and meetings.