इतिहास History

Quick summary

After Aurangzeb's death (1707) the Mughal Empire broke up and many regional states arose. The strongest new power was the Marathas, led after 1713 by the Peshwas of Pune under the Chhatrapati at Satara. Under Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao I and Nanasaheb, Maratha power spread across India until the defeat at Panipat (1761). Madhavrao I revived it, but internal quarrels later helped the British.

Key points

• Regional states of the 18th century: Hyderabad (Nizam-ul-Mulk, 1724), Awadh, Bengal, Mysore (Haidar Ali), the Sikhs, Jats and Rajputs, and the Maratha state.
• Balaji Vishwanath (Peshwa 1713–1720) supported Shahu in his struggle with Tararani. In 1719 he obtained Mughal sanads giving the Marathas swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from the six Deccan provinces.
• Bajirao I (1720–1740), a brilliant cavalry general, defeated the Nizam at Palkhed (1728), won Malwa and Bundelkhand (helping Chhatrasal), raided Delhi (1737) and defeated the Nizam at Bhopal (1738). His brother Chimaji Appa captured Vasai from the Portuguese (1739).
• Nanasaheb (Balaji Bajirao) (1740–1761): after Shahu's death (1749) the Peshwa became the real ruler. Maratha power reached Punjab and Orissa; the Nizam was defeated at Udgir (1760).
• Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761): Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas led by Sadashivrao Bhau; Vishwasrao died. Causes of defeat: lack of allies, supply problems, unwieldy camp, Abdali's strong artillery and cavalry.
• Madhavrao I (1761–1772) restored Maratha prestige; Mahadji Shinde brought Mughal emperor Shah Alam II back to Delhi (1771–72).
• Maratha Confederacy: Peshwa (Pune), Shinde (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore; Ahilyabai Holkar was a famous ruler), Gaikwad (Baroda) and Bhosale of Nagpur (Raghuji I extended power to Orissa and raided Bengal).
• After Narayanrao's murder (1773), Nana Phadnavis led the Barbhai council against Raghunathrao, who sought British help (First Anglo-Maratha War).
• Bajirao II signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802); the Third Anglo-Maratha War ended Peshwa rule in 1818.

Important terms

• Peshwa – chief minister of the Chhatrapati; later the real head of the Maratha state.
• Chauth – one-fourth of the revenue collected from a region for protection.
• Sardeshmukhi – an extra 10 percent claimed as the hereditary head (sardeshmukh).
• Sanad – an official grant or charter.
• Confederacy – a union of semi-independent chiefs under a common head.

Important dates and people

• 1719 – Mughal sanads to the Marathas.
• 1728 – Battle of Palkhed.
• 1739 – Vasai captured.
• 14 January 1761 – Third Battle of Panipat.
• 1818 – end of Peshwa rule.

5 important questions

Q1. What were chauth and sardeshmukhi?

Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue of a region, and sardeshmukhi an additional one-tenth; the Marathas collected them as a sign of overlordship.

Q2. Who won the Battle of Palkhed?

Peshwa Bajirao I defeated the Nizam in 1728.

Q3. Describe the achievements of Peshwa Bajirao I.

• Military skill and strategy.
• Palkhed, Malwa, Bundelkhand.
• Delhi and Bhopal.
• Vasai campaign; assessment.

Q4. Explain the causes and results of the Third Battle of Panipat.

• Causes: Maratha expansion in the north, Abdali's ambitions.
• Course of the battle.
• Causes of defeat.
• Results for the Marathas, Mughals and British.

Q5. Write a note on the Maratha Confederacy.

• Its members and areas.
• Advantages: wide expansion.
• Weaknesses: rivalry, lack of central control.
• Role in Maratha decline.

Exam tip

Learn each Peshwa with one big event and date: Balaji Vishwanath – 1719 sanads; Bajirao I – Palkhed 1728; Nanasaheb – Panipat 1761.

Quick summary

From the late 15th century, European traders came to India by sea in search of spices, cotton cloth and other goods. The Portuguese came first (1498), followed by the Dutch, the English and the French. They set up trading posts (factories), fought among themselves and with Indian rulers, and finally the English East India Company became the dominant power.

Key points

• Causes: capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453) disturbed the old land routes; demand for spices in Europe; new navigation technology; Renaissance spirit of exploration.
• Portuguese: Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on 20 May 1498, welcomed by the Zamorin.
• Francisco de Almeida (first viceroy, 1505) followed the "Blue Water Policy" of naval power.
• Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from Bijapur in 1510; Goa became the Portuguese capital in India. They also held Daman, Diu, Bassein (Vasai) and Chaul.
• The Marathas under Chimaji Appa captured Vasai (Bassein) in 1739 from the Portuguese.
• Portuguese decline: religious intolerance, rivalry with the Dutch and English, small home country, corruption. Goa stayed Portuguese until 1961.
• Dutch: Dutch East India Company (VOC) formed in 1602. Factories at Masulipatnam (1605), Pulicat, Surat, Chinsura and Cochin. They focused on the spice islands of Indonesia. The English defeated them at the Battle of Bedara (Chinsura) in 1759.
• English: East India Company got a charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600.
• Captain William Hawkins (1608) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615) visited Jahangir's court; Roe got permission for factories.
• First permanent English factory at Surat (1613). Madras (Fort St. George, 1639–40), Bombay received from the Portuguese as dowry when Charles II married Catherine of Braganza (1661) and given to the Company (1668), Calcutta (1690, Job Charnock; Fort William).
• Farrukhsiyar's farman (1717) gave duty-free trade in Bengal.
• French: French East India Company formed in 1664. First factory at Surat (1668); Pondicherry (1674) became their main centre. Dupleix was the most famous French governor.
• Anglo-French rivalry: three Carnatic Wars (1746–1763). Robert Clive's capture of Arcot (1751); the English won the decisive Battle of Wandiwash (1760). The French were left only with a few settlements like Pondicherry.
• Reasons for English success: strong navy, better organisation of a private company with state support, control of Bengal's wealth after Plassey, able leaders like Clive.

Important terms

• Factory – trading post/warehouse of a European company.
• Charter – royal permission to trade.
• Farman – royal order of the Mughal emperor.
• Carnatic – region of the south-east coast (Coromandel).
• Blue Water Policy – Portuguese policy of naval supremacy.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Vasco da Gama?

He was a Portuguese sailor who discovered the sea route from Europe to India via the Cape of Good Hope. He reached Calicut on 20 May 1498.

Q2. What was the importance of the Battle of Wandiwash?

In 1760 the English defeated the French at Wandiwash in the Third Carnatic War. It ended French hopes of building an empire in India.

Q3. Describe the rise and decline of the Portuguese in India.

• Arrival of Vasco da Gama (1498).
• Almeida's naval policy; Albuquerque's capture of Goa.
• Control of sea trade; cartaz system (passes).
• Decline: religious intolerance, Dutch and English rivalry, Maratha conquest of Vasai.
• Retained Goa, Daman, Diu till 1961.

Q4. Explain the Anglo-French rivalry in the Carnatic.

• First Carnatic War (1746–48) – link with Austrian Succession war.
• Second (1749–54) – succession disputes; Clive at Arcot.
• Third (1756–63) – Wandiwash 1760.
• Result: English supremacy; French confined to Pondicherry.

Q5. Why did the English succeed over other European powers in India?

• Superior navy.
• Efficient company structure, private enterprise.
• Strong home government support.
• Wealth of Bengal after Plassey.
• Able leaders: Clive, Warren Hastings.
• Weak rivals' mistakes (e.g. recall of Dupleix).

Exam tip

Write the four European powers in order of arrival with one main base each (Portuguese – Goa, Dutch – Pulicat/Chinsura, English – Surat/Bombay/Calcutta, French – Pondicherry).

Quick summary

Between 1757 and 1856, the English East India Company changed from a trading company into the ruler of most of India. It used wars (Plassey, Buxar, Anglo-Mysore, Anglo-Maratha, Anglo-Sikh), and policies such as Wellesley's Subsidiary Alliance and Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse. By 1856 the Company controlled almost the whole subcontinent directly or indirectly.

Key points

• Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757): Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, Nawab of Bengal, mainly through the betrayal of Mir Jafar.
• Battle of Buxar (1764): the English defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.
• Treaty of Allahabad (1765): the Company received the Diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Clive introduced the Dual Government (1765–1772).
• Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799): Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan resisted. Tipu died defending Srirangapatna in 1799 in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
• Anglo-Maratha Wars:

1. First (1775–1782) – ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782); Mahadji Shinde played a major role.
2. Second (1803–1805) – after the Treaty of Bassein (1802), by which Peshwa Bajirao II accepted the subsidiary alliance.
3. Third (1817–1818) – battles of Khadki and Koregaon; the Peshwa was defeated and pensioned off to Bithur. Peshwa rule ended in 1818. The Bhosales of Nagpur were defeated at Sitabuldi (1817).

• Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–46, 1848–49): after Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death (1839), Punjab was annexed in 1849.
• Subsidiary Alliance (Lord Wellesley, 1798): an Indian ruler had to keep British troops in his state and pay for them, accept a British Resident, and not make alliances or employ other Europeans without British consent. Hyderabad (1798) was the first to accept it; Mysore, Awadh, the Peshwa and others followed.
• Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie, 1848–1856): if a ruler of a dependent state died without a natural heir, the state "lapsed" to the British; adopted sons were not recognised as heirs. Annexed: Satara (1848), Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Baghat, Udaipur (Chhattisgarh), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
• Awadh was annexed in 1856 on the charge of misgovernment.
• Administration: Regulating Act 1773, Pitt's India Act 1784, Charter Acts (1813, 1833, 1853); Permanent Settlement (1793, Cornwallis), Ryotwari, Mahalwari systems.

Important terms

• Diwani – right to collect revenue.
• Dual Government – Company held revenue, Nawab held administration without power.
• Subsidiary Alliance – treaty making Indian states dependent on British troops.
• Doctrine of Lapse – annexation of states without natural heirs.
• Resident – British agent at an Indian court.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the significance of the Battle of Plassey?

In 1757 the English defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah. It made them king-makers in Bengal and gave them wealth, which became the base of British expansion in India.

Q2. What was the Doctrine of Lapse?

It was Lord Dalhousie's policy under which a dependent state whose ruler died without a natural heir was annexed by the British. Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed this way.

Q3. Explain Wellesley's Subsidiary Alliance.

• Terms: British troops, subsidy or territory, Resident, no foreign relations.
• States: Hyderabad first, then Mysore, Awadh, Peshwa (1802).
• Benefits to British: army at Indian cost, control of states.
• Effects on states: loss of independence, financial ruin.

Q4. Describe the Anglo-Maratha Wars.

• First war; Treaty of Salbai.
• Treaty of Bassein; second war.
• Third war; Khadki, Koregaon, Sitabuldi.
• End of Peshwai, 1818.
• Causes of Maratha defeat: disunity, weak leadership after Nana Phadnavis, inferior artillery organisation.

Q5. Explain the significance of the Battle of Buxar.

• Combined Indian forces defeated.
• More decisive than Plassey (won by military skill).
• Treaty of Allahabad, 1765.
• Diwani rights; Mughal emperor under British protection.
• Company became a political power in north India.

Exam tip

Link each ruler with his policy: Clive (Governor of Bengal; Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General in 1773) – Dual Government, Wellesley – Subsidiary Alliance, Dalhousie – Doctrine of Lapse.

Quick summary

After gaining the Diwani of Bengal (1765), the East India Company turned from a trader into a ruler collecting land revenue. It introduced new land settlements – Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari and Mahalwari – which aimed at maximum revenue. Its trade policies pushed commercial crops, ruined Indian handicrafts (de-industrialisation) and caused a continuous drain of wealth to Britain.

Key points

• Dual Government (1765–1772): the Company held revenue rights while the Nawab kept administrative responsibility; this caused misrule and contributed to the terrible Bengal famine of 1770.
• Permanent Settlement (1793), Lord Cornwallis, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa: zamindars became owners of land; the revenue was fixed forever (about ten-elevenths of the rent went to the government). The Sunset Law sold estates if revenue was not paid on time. Peasants became tenants at the zamindar's mercy.
• Ryotwari system: introduced by Thomas Munro and Alexander Read in Madras (from 1820) and later in Bombay Presidency (survey settlement of Wingate and Goldsmid, 1830s). The ryot (cultivator) was the owner and paid revenue directly to the state; rates were revised every 20–30 years and were often very high.
• Mahalwari system: proposed by Holt Mackenzie (1822) for the North-Western Provinces, central India and Punjab; the mahal (village or estate) as a whole was responsible for revenue; revised by R. M. Bird and James Thomason.
• Commercialisation of agriculture: indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tea and sugarcane were grown for export and for British industry. Farmers depended on moneylenders and markets; food crops declined in places, and famines became severe.
• De-industrialisation: Indian handicrafts declined because of loss of royal patronage, cheap British machine-made goods, high duties on Indian goods in Britain but almost free entry of British goods into India, and railways that carried goods into the interior.
• India changed from an exporter of finished cloth to an exporter of raw materials and an importer of manufactured goods.
• Drain of wealth: salaries, pensions and profits sent to Britain without any return. Dadabhai Naoroji explained this in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901).
• Railways (from 1853), roads and the telegraph served British economic and military needs.

Important terms

• Diwani – the right to collect revenue.
• Zamindar – landlord responsible for revenue.
• Ryot – peasant cultivator.
• Mahal – a village or estate taken as a revenue unit.
• De-industrialisation – decline of traditional industries.
• Drain theory – the idea that British rule took India's wealth away without return.

Important dates and people

• 1765 – Diwani of Bengal.
• 1770 – Bengal famine.
• 1793 – Permanent Settlement (Cornwallis).
• 1820 – Ryotwari in Madras (Munro).
• 1822 – Mahalwari (Holt Mackenzie).

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Sunset Law?

A rule of the Permanent Settlement that a zamindar's estate would be auctioned if the revenue was not paid by sunset of the fixed date.

Q2. Who introduced the Ryotwari system?

Thomas Munro (with Alexander Read) in the Madras Presidency.

Q3. Compare the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems.

• Area and year.
• Who paid and who owned land.
• Fixed or revisable revenue.
• Effects on peasants.
• A comparison table is ideal.

Q4. Explain the causes and effects of de-industrialisation in India.

• Causes listed above.
• Effects: unemployment, pressure on agriculture, ruralisation.
• Change in India's trade.

Q5. Discuss the economic impact of Company rule on India.

• Land revenue systems.
• Commercialisation and famines.
• Decline of crafts.
• Drain of wealth; railways.

Exam tip

Always present the three land systems in a table. Mention Bombay's Ryotwari survey for Maharashtra and Naoroji for the drain theory.

Quick summary

As the East India Company became a ruling power, the British Parliament passed a series of Acts to control it. The Regulating Act (1773) began parliamentary control; Pitt's India Act (1784) created dual control; the Charter Acts of 1793, 1813, 1833 and 1853 gradually reduced the Company's commercial role and centralised administration; and the Government of India Act, 1858 ended Company rule and placed India under the Crown.

Key points

• Regulating Act, 1773: Governor of Bengal became Governor-General of Bengal (first: Warren Hastings) with a council of four; Bombay and Madras were placed under him; a Supreme Court was set up at Calcutta (1774, chief justice Elijah Impey); Company servants were barred from private trade and gifts. Weakness: the Governor-General could be outvoted by his council.
• Pitt's India Act, 1784: created a Board of Control (government ministers) to control political matters, while the Court of Directors handled commerce – the system of dual control; the Governor-General's council was reduced to three.
• Act of 1786: allowed the Governor-General (Cornwallis) to override his council in special cases.
• Charter Act, 1793: renewed the Company's charter for 20 years.
• Charter Act, 1813: ended the Company's trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China; allowed missionaries into India; set aside one lakh rupees a year for education.
• Charter Act, 1833: the Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India (first: Lord William Bentinck); the Company stopped all trade and became a purely administrative body; a Law Member (Macaulay) was added and a Law Commission set up; it declared that no Indian should be denied office because of religion, birth or colour.
• Charter Act, 1853: separated the legislative and executive work of the council; introduced open competition for the Indian Civil Service; the charter was not renewed for a fixed period.
• Government of India Act, 1858 (after the Revolt of 1857): Company rule ended; India came under the British Crown; a Secretary of State for India with a Council of India (15 members) in London; the Governor-General also became Viceroy (first: Lord Canning).
• Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1 November 1858) promised religious tolerance, respect for princes' rights and equal opportunity in government jobs.

Important terms

• Board of Control – body of British ministers controlling the Company's political affairs (1784).
• Court of Directors – the Company's governing body in London.
• Dual control – sharing of control between the Crown and the Company.
• Charter – the official permission to trade, renewed by Parliament.
• Viceroy – the Crown's representative in India.

Important dates and people

• 1773 – Regulating Act; Warren Hastings.
• 1784 – Pitt's India Act.
• 1813, 1833, 1853 – Charter Acts.
• 1858 – Government of India Act; Lord Canning first Viceroy.

5 important questions

Q1. Who was the first Governor-General of India?

Lord William Bentinck, under the Charter Act of 1833.

Q2. What was the Board of Control?

A body of British government ministers created by Pitt's India Act (1784) to supervise the Company's political, military and revenue affairs.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the Regulating Act of 1773.

• Governor-General and council.
• Control over Bombay and Madras.
• Supreme Court.
• Defects.

Q4. Describe the importance of the Charter Acts of 1813, 1833 and 1853.

• End of monopoly; missionaries; education.
• Governor-General of India; end of trade; Law Member.
• Separation of legislature; ICS competition.

Q5. Write a note on the Government of India Act, 1858.

• Background: Revolt of 1857.
• Provisions.
• Queen's Proclamation.
• Significance.

Exam tip

Make a timeline 1773 → 1784 → 1813 → 1833 → 1853 → 1858 with two provisions each. It covers almost every question on this topic.

Quick summary

Long before the Congress was formed, peasants and tribal communities rose against Company rule. Heavy land revenue, moneylenders, loss of forest rights and outsiders (dikus) entering tribal lands caused many local revolts. They were mostly crushed, but they showed deep anger against colonial rule and fed later national movements. Maharashtra and Vidarbha had their own uprisings by the Bhils, Ramoshis, Kolis and Gonds.

Key points

• Causes: high revenue demand and harsh collection; new land laws that let land pass to moneylenders; forest laws closing access to forests; exploitation by zamindars, traders and officials; attacks on tribal customs and self-rule.
• Sanyasi and Fakir revolt (c. 1763–1800, Bengal) – wandering monks resisted Company taxes after the 1770 famine.
• Paika rebellion (1817, Odisha) under Bakshi Jagabandhu.
• Kol uprising (1831–32, Chotanagpur) against outsiders taking tribal land.
• Santhal Hul (1855–56, Rajmahal hills) led by Sidhu and Kanhu against zamindars, moneylenders and police; a separate Santhal Parganas district was later created.
• Maharashtra: Bhil revolts in Khandesh (from 1818) – the British formed a Bhil Corps to win them over; Ramoshi revolt led by Umaji Naik (1826–1832) near Pune, who was hanged in 1832; Koli risings in the Sahyadri.
• Vidarbha: Gond chief Baburao Shedmake of Chandrapur district rose against the British in 1858 and was hanged at Chandrapur.
• Indigo revolt (1859–60, Bengal): peasants refused to grow indigo for European planters; the play Nil Darpan (Dinabandhu Mitra) exposed the planters.
• Deccan Riots (1875) in Pune and Ahmadnagar districts: peasants attacked moneylenders and burnt their bonds; the government passed the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act (1879).
• Vasudev Balwant Phadke (1879) organised Ramoshis and others in an armed revolt in Maharashtra.
• Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900) led by Birsa Munda, who called for an end to outsider rule; it led to the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908).
• Nature: local, led by traditional or religious leaders, poorly armed, without all-India links – but courageous and widely supported.

Important terms

• Diku – outsider (trader, moneylender, official) in tribal areas.
• Hul / Ulgulan – Santhal and Munda words for rebellion.
• Moneylender (sawkar) – lender who often took peasants' land through debt.
• Corps – a military unit (e.g. Bhil Corps).

Important dates and people

• 1817 – Paika rebellion.
• 1826–1832 – Umaji Naik.
• 1855–56 – Santhal Hul.
• 1858 – Baburao Shedmake.
• 1875 – Deccan Riots; 1879 – Phadke's revolt.
• 1899–1900 – Birsa Munda.

5 important questions

Q1. Who led the Santhal rebellion?

Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, in 1855–56.

Q2. What were the Deccan Riots?

Attacks by peasants of Pune and Ahmadnagar districts on moneylenders in 1875, to destroy debt bonds; they led to the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act of 1879.

Q3. Explain the causes of peasant and tribal revolts in the 19th century.

• Revenue and land laws.
• Moneylenders and outsiders.
• Forest laws.
• Cultural interference.

Q4. Write a note on revolts in Maharashtra against British rule.

• Bhils of Khandesh.
• Umaji Naik and the Ramoshis.
• Gond rising of Baburao Shedmake.
• Deccan Riots; Vasudev Balwant Phadke.

Q5. Assess the nature and importance of tribal revolts.

• Leaders and aims.
• Methods and weaknesses.
• Government response and laws.
• Contribution to the freedom struggle.

Exam tip

Learn at least three Maharashtra or Vidarbha examples (Umaji Naik, Baburao Shedmake, the Deccan Riots); they strengthen answers on popular resistance.

Quick summary

The Revolt of 1857 was the first large-scale armed uprising against the rule of the East India Company. It began as a mutiny of Indian soldiers (sepoys) at Meerut on 10 May 1857 and spread to many parts of north and central India. It failed, but it ended Company rule: in 1858 the British Crown took over the government of India.

Key points

• Political causes: annexations under the Doctrine of Lapse (Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur) and of Awadh (1856); ending of pensions and titles (Nana Saheb's pension stopped; plan to end the Mughal title).
• Economic causes: heavy land revenue, loss of land by peasants and zamindars, ruin of Indian handicrafts, drain of wealth.
• Social-religious causes: fear of conversion, social reforms seen as interference (e.g. Widow Remarriage Act 1856), racial discrimination.
• Military causes: low pay and poor promotion for sepoys, General Service Enlistment Act (1856) requiring service overseas, withdrawal of foreign service allowance.
• Immediate cause: the new Enfield rifle cartridges, rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat, which had to be bitten.
• Mangal Pandey attacked officers at Barrackpore on 29 March 1857 and was hanged.
• On 10 May 1857 sepoys at Meerut rebelled, marched to Delhi, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar emperor of India.
• Centres and leaders:

• Rani Lakshmibai died fighting near Gwalior in June 1858. Tatya Tope was captured and hanged in 1859.
• In Maharashtra and the Deccan there were smaller outbreaks; in Vidarbha, sepoys and local chiefs resisted in some places.
• Causes of failure: limited area (south and east largely calm), lack of unity and common plan, no central leadership, poor weapons, many rulers (e.g. Sindhia, Nizam) supported the British, British control of communications (telegraph) and navy.
• Results: Government of India Act 1858 – Company rule ended; India placed under the Crown; office of Secretary of State for India created; Governor-General became Viceroy. Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1 November 1858, read at Allahabad) promised no more annexations and religious tolerance. Army reorganised (more European troops, "divide and rule").
• Nature – debated: "Sepoy Mutiny" (many British writers), "First War of Independence" (V. D. Savarkar, 1909), a "conspiracy" or a feudal reaction (other views). R. C. Majumdar said it was neither the first nor national nor a war of independence. Most historians today see it as a broad popular revolt with sepoy, peasant and princely participation.

Important terms

• Sepoy – Indian soldier in the Company army.
• Enfield rifle – new rifle whose greased cartridges sparked the revolt.
• Viceroy – representative of the Crown in India after 1858.
• Proclamation – official announcement (Queen Victoria, 1858).

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the immediate cause of the Revolt of 1857?

The greased cartridges of the new Enfield rifle. Sepoys believed they were greased with cow and pig fat, which hurt both Hindu and Muslim religious feelings.

Q2. Who was Rani Lakshmibai?

She was the queen of Jhansi, whose state was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse. She led the revolt in Jhansi and died fighting the British near Gwalior in 1858.

Q3. Explain the causes of the Revolt of 1857.

• Political – annexations.
• Economic – revenue, handicrafts ruin.
• Social-religious – fear of conversion.
• Military – grievances of sepoys.
• Immediate – greased cartridges.

Q4. Why did the Revolt of 1857 fail?

• Limited spread.
• Lack of unity and plan.
• No common leader or ideology.
• Inferior arms.
• Support of many princes to British.
• British resources, telegraph, navy.

Q5. Discuss the results of the Revolt of 1857.

• End of Company rule; Act of 1858.
• Secretary of State; Viceroy.
• Queen's Proclamation.
• Army reorganisation; divide and rule.
• End of the Mughal dynasty.
• Inspired later nationalism.

Exam tip

For "nature of the revolt" questions, present at least three views (Mutiny, War of Independence, popular revolt) and conclude with your balanced opinion.

Quick summary

In the 19th century, Indian thinkers started movements to reform society and religion, inspired by Western education, rational thinking and India's own traditions. They opposed sati, child marriage, caste discrimination and superstition, and worked for women's education and widow remarriage. Maharashtra was a major centre, with Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and others.

Key points

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (called the "Father of Indian Renaissance") founded the Brahmo Samaj (1828). He opposed sati; Lord William Bentinck banned sati in 1829.
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar worked for widow remarriage; the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 was passed.
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj (1875) in Bombay; slogan "Go back to the Vedas"; book Satyarth Prakash; started shuddhi.
• Swami Vivekananda, disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, founded the Ramakrishna Mission (1897); famous speech at the Chicago Parliament of Religions (1893).
• Prarthana Samaj (1867) in Bombay – Dr. Atmaram Pandurang, with Justice M. G. Ranade and R. G. Bhandarkar as leading members.
• Mahatma Jyotirao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj on 24 September 1873; wrote Gulamgiri (1873) and Shetkaryacha Asud. He opposed caste and Brahmanical domination.
• Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule started a girls' school at Bhide Wada, Pune, in 1848. Savitribai is regarded as India's first woman teacher of modern times.
• Gopal Ganesh Agarkar – rationalist reformer; editor of Sudharak; a founder of the Deccan Education Society and later principal of Fergusson College, Pune.
• Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve – widow remarriage and women's education; founded the first women's university in India (SNDT Women's University, 1916).
• Pandita Ramabai – founded Sharada Sadan (1889) for widows.
• Lokhitwadi (Gopal Hari Deshmukh) wrote Shatapatre criticising social evils.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur gave 50% reservation in government jobs to backward classes in 1902.
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan started the Aligarh Movement; founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (1875), which became Aligarh Muslim University.
• Theosophical Society (1875, Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott); Annie Besant led it in India.
• Narayana Guru in Kerala: "One caste, one religion, one God for man".
• Impact: rational thinking, women's education, laws against social evils, decline of caste rigidity, growth of national consciousness.

Important terms

• Renaissance – revival of learning and reason.
• Sati – burning of a widow on her husband's pyre.
• Satyashodhak – "seeker of truth".
• Shuddhi – reconversion movement of the Arya Samaj.
• Rationalism – reliance on reason instead of blind faith.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who founded the Satyashodhak Samaj and why?

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule founded it in 1873 in Pune. Its aim was to free the lower castes from caste slavery and religious exploitation, and to spread education and equality.

Q2. What was Raja Ram Mohan Roy's contribution?

He founded the Brahmo Samaj (1828), fought against sati, supported women's rights and modern English education. Sati was banned in 1829 with his support.

Q3. Describe the contribution of Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule.

• First girls' school (1848).
• Schools for untouchables.
• Satyashodhak Samaj; Gulamgiri.
• Home for widows' children; opposed infanticide.
• Savitribai's poetry and service during plague (died 1897).

Q4. Explain the work of the Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission.

• Arya Samaj: Dayanand, Vedas, anti-idol worship, DAV schools, shuddhi.
• Ramakrishna Mission: Vivekananda, service to humanity, Vedanta, self-confidence.
• Both revived pride in Indian culture.

Q5. Discuss the impact of social reform movements on Indian society.

• Laws against social evils.
• Spread of women's education.
• Challenge to caste.
• Rational and scientific outlook.
• Growth of regional press.
• Base for national movement.

Exam tip

Maharashtra examiners expect Phule, Agarkar, Ranade, Karve and Shahu Maharaj – include them even if the question is general.

Quick summary

In the 19th century Western (English) education and the press changed Indian society. The Company slowly accepted responsibility for education, and Macaulay's Minute (1835) and Wood's Despatch (1854) shaped an English-medium system with universities from 1857. Newspapers in English and Indian languages spread new ideas, criticised the government and became powerful tools of social reform and nationalism.

Key points

• Early institutions: Calcutta Madrasa (1781, Warren Hastings), Sanskrit College at Banaras (1791), Fort William College (1800).
• Charter Act 1813 set aside one lakh rupees a year for education.
• Orientalist–Anglicist debate: whether to support Sanskrit/Persian learning or English education.
• Macaulay's Minute (2 February 1835) favoured English education; Lord William Bentinck made English the medium of higher education (1835). The downward filtration theory expected education to spread from the upper classes to the masses.
• Wood's Despatch (1854), called the "Magna Carta of English education in India": education departments in provinces, grants-in-aid, vernacular primary schools, teacher training, women's education, and universities.
• Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were founded in 1857.
• Hunter Commission (1882) stressed primary education; Curzon's Indian Universities Act (1904) increased government control.
• Maharashtra: Elphinstone College (Bombay); Mahatma Jotirao and Savitribai Phule started a girls' school in Pune (1848); the Deccan Education Society (1884) founded Fergusson College (1885).
• Press: Hicky's Bengal Gazette (1780) – first newspaper in India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy started Sambad Kaumudi (1821) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822).
• Marathi press: Darpan (6 January 1832) by Balshastri Jambhekar, the first Marathi newspaper – the day is marked as Marathi Patrakar Din; Dnyanprakash (1849); Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English) in 1881 by Tilak, Agarkar and Chiplunkar; Sudharak (Agarkar, 1888); Deenbandhu (1877, Satyashodhak); Dr Ambedkar's Mooknayak (1920).
• Other papers: Amrita Bazar Patrika (1868), The Hindu (1878).
• Press laws: Licensing Regulations (1823); Metcalfe freed the press in 1835 ("liberator of the Indian press"); Vernacular Press Act (1878, Lytton), repealed by Ripon in 1882.
• Impact: a new educated middle class, spread of reform ideas, criticism of British policy, and the rise of national consciousness.

Important terms

• Downward filtration – educating the upper classes so that knowledge would "filter down" to the masses.
• Grant-in-aid – government financial help to private schools.
• Vernacular – Indian regional language.
• Gagging Act – a popular name for the Vernacular Press Act of 1878.

Important dates and people

• 1780 – Hicky's Bengal Gazette.
• 1832 – Darpan (Balshastri Jambhekar).
• 1835 – Macaulay's Minute; Metcalfe frees the press.
• 1848 – Phules' girls' school; 1854 – Wood's Despatch; 1857 – three universities.
• 1878 – Vernacular Press Act; 1881 – Kesari and Mahratta.

5 important questions

Q1. Why is Wood's Despatch called the Magna Carta of English education?

Because it gave the first complete plan for education in India, from primary schools to universities, including women's and vernacular education.

Q2. Which was the first Marathi newspaper?

Darpan, started by Balshastri Jambhekar on 6 January 1832.

Q3. Trace the growth of Western education in India up to 1857.

• Early colleges.
• 1813 grant; Orientalist–Anglicist debate.
• Macaulay's Minute.
• Wood's Despatch and universities.

Q4. Explain the role of the press in social and national awakening.

• Ram Mohan Roy and early papers.
• Marathi press: Darpan, Kesari, Sudharak, Deenbandhu.
• Criticism of the government.
• Press laws and resistance.

Q5. Assess the impact of Western education on Indian society.

• New middle class and leaders.
• Social reform and women's education.
• Nationalism.
• Limitations: neglect of masses, English bias.

Exam tip

Keep three pairs ready: 1835 – Macaulay, 1854 – Wood, 1878 – Lytton's Press Act. Add one Marathi newspaper with its founder in every press answer.

Quick summary

In the second half of the 19th century, Indians developed a feeling of common nationhood against British rule. Economic exploitation, Western education, the press, reform movements and racial discrimination all helped. The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. Its first phase was led by the Moderates (1885–1905); then the Extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal) rose, especially during the Swadeshi movement after the Partition of Bengal (1905).

Key points

• Causes of rise of nationalism: political and administrative unity under British rule; economic exploitation (Drain theory of Dadabhai Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India); modern education and English as a common language; railways, post and telegraph; the press (Kesari, Maratha, Amrita Bazar Patrika, The Hindu); rediscovery of India's past; social reform; racial arrogance (e.g. Ilbert Bill controversy, 1883); repressive policies of Lord Lytton (Vernacular Press Act 1878, Arms Act 1878, Delhi Durbar during famine).
• Pre-Congress associations: British Indian Association (1851), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) with Justice Ranade, Indian Association (1876, Surendranath Banerjee), Bombay Presidency Association (1885).
• Indian National Congress founded on 28 December 1885 at Bombay (Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College). A. O. Hume, a retired British officer, helped form it. First president: W. C. Bonnerjee; 72 delegates attended.
• Moderates (1885–1905): Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, Justice M. G. Ranade. Methods: petitions, prayers, protests (the "3 Ps"), faith in British justice. Demands: expansion of legislative councils, Indianisation of services, reduction of military expenses, civil liberties.
• Achievement of Moderates: spread political awareness; exposed economic exploitation; Indian Councils Act 1892.
• Extremists: Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal), Aurobindo Ghosh. Tilak declared: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it."
• Tilak used the Ganeshotsav (1893) and Shivjayanti (1895) festivals to unite people; edited Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English).
• Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon, announced in July and effected on 16 October 1905 – seen as "divide and rule".
• Swadeshi and Boycott movement: boycott of foreign goods, burning of foreign cloth, national education, swadeshi industries. Rabindranath Tagore's songs; Bande Mataram became the slogan.
• Calcutta session 1906 (president Dadabhai Naoroji) adopted the goal of Swaraj.
• Surat Split (1907): Congress divided into Moderates and Extremists.
• Muslim League founded in 1906 at Dacca.
• Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
• Partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911; capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress and Muslim League joined; Moderates and Extremists reunited. Home Rule Leagues (1916) of Tilak and Annie Besant.

Important terms

• Drain theory – outflow of India's wealth to Britain without return.
• Moderates / Extremists – two groups in early Congress.
• Swadeshi – use of goods made in one's own country.
• Boycott – refusal to buy foreign goods.
• Separate electorate – voters of a community electing their own representatives.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Drain Theory?

Dadabhai Naoroji argued that a large part of India's wealth was being drained to Britain through salaries, pensions, profits and "home charges" without any return. This caused India's poverty.

Q2. What was the Surat Split?

At the Surat session of Congress in 1907, Moderates and Extremists differed over methods and leadership, and the Congress split into two groups. They reunited in 1916.

Q3. Explain the factors responsible for the rise of Indian nationalism.

• Political unity and administration.
• Economic exploitation.
• Western education.
• Press and literature.
• Social reform movements.
• Racial discrimination; Lytton's policies.

Q4. Compare the Moderates and the Extremists.

• Leaders.
• Aim: reforms within British rule vs Swaraj.
• Methods: petitions vs boycott, swadeshi, mass action.
• Faith in British vs self-reliance.
• Social base: educated elite vs wider masses.

Q5. Describe the Swadeshi movement.

• Cause: Partition of Bengal (1905).
• Boycott of foreign goods; bonfires.
• Swadeshi industries, national schools.
• Role of Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Pal, Aurobindo, Tagore.
• Results: mass participation; annulment in 1911.

Exam tip

Tilak's slogan and the 1905–1911 timeline are almost always asked; learn them exactly.

Quick summary

In its first twenty years the Indian National Congress was led by Moderates, who believed in constitutional methods and British fair play. Growing dissatisfaction produced the Extremists (assertive nationalists) led by Lal-Bal-Pal. The Partition of Bengal (1905) sparked the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, the first mass movement of the national struggle. The two groups split at Surat (1907) and reunited in 1916.

Key points

• Foundation of the Congress: December 1885 at Bombay, with A. O. Hume's help; first president W. C. Bonnerjee; 72 delegates.
• Moderates (1885–1905): Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjea, M. G. Ranade. Methods: prayers, petitions, speeches, meetings – "3 Ps".
• Moderate demands: expansion of legislative councils, simultaneous ICS exams in India and England, cut in military spending, lower land revenue, protection of Indian industry.
• Achievements: economic critique of British rule (the drain theory), political education of the people, the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
• Rise of the Extremists: failure of moderate methods, famines and plague (1896–97), Curzon's policies, influence of Japan's victory over Russia (1905), revival of Indian pride.
• Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh. Tilak's slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it." He used the public Ganeshotsav (1893) and Shivjayanti (1895) to unite people.
• Partition of Bengal: announced by Curzon; came into effect on 16 October 1905; aimed to divide Hindus and Muslims and weaken Bengali nationalism.
• Swadeshi and Boycott: the boycott resolution was passed at Calcutta Town Hall on 7 August 1905; foreign cloth was burnt; swadeshi industries, stores and banks grew; national education (Bengal National College); Tagore's songs and raksha bandhan as a symbol of unity.
• Calcutta Congress (1906), under Dadabhai Naoroji, declared Swaraj as the goal and passed resolutions on swadeshi, boycott and national education.
• Surat Split (1907) between Moderates and Extremists. In 1908 Tilak was sentenced to six years and sent to Mandalay.
• The Partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911.
• Reunion and Home Rule (1916): the Lucknow session reunited the Congress; Tilak (April 1916) and Annie Besant (September 1916) started Home Rule Leagues.

Important terms

• Moderates – early Congress leaders using constitutional methods.
• Extremists – assertive nationalists demanding Swaraj through mass action.
• Swadeshi – use of goods made in one's own country.
• Boycott – refusal to buy foreign goods or use British institutions.
• Home Rule – self-government within the British Empire.

Important dates and people

• 1885 – Congress founded.
• 1905 – Partition of Bengal (16 October).
• 1906 – Calcutta Congress: Swaraj.
• 1907 – Surat Split.
• 1911 – Partition annulled; 1916 – Lucknow reunion, Home Rule Leagues.

5 important questions

Q1. Who said "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it"?

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

Q2. When did the Partition of Bengal come into effect?

On 16 October 1905.

Q3. Compare the Moderates and the Extremists.

• Leaders.
• Aims and methods.
• Social base.
• Achievements and limits (table).

Q4. Describe the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.

• Partition of Bengal and its aims.
• Forms of protest.
• Spread to other regions, including Maharashtra.
• Results.

Q5. Assess Lokmanya Tilak's contribution to the national movement.

• Kesari and Mahratta.
• Ganeshotsav and Shivjayanti.
• Swadeshi, Surat, Mandalay.
• Home Rule League; Gita Rahasya.

Exam tip

A two-column table (Moderates vs Extremists) earns quick marks. Add Maharashtra examples such as Tilak's festivals.

Quick summary

Under pressure from the national movement, the British introduced constitutional reforms in stages: the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909), the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) and the Government of India Act (1935). Each gave Indians a little more share in government, but kept real power with the British and encouraged communal division through separate electorates. The 1935 Act later became a base for the Constitution of India.

Key points

• Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms): enlarged central and provincial legislative councils; members could discuss the budget and ask supplementary questions; an Indian (S. P. Sinha) entered the Viceroy's Executive Council; separate electorates for Muslims were introduced.
• Montagu Declaration (20 August 1917) promised the gradual development of responsible government in India.
• Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms):
• Dyarchy in the provinces: transferred subjects (education, health, local self-government, agriculture) under Indian ministers responsible to the legislature; reserved subjects (finance, police, law and order, land revenue) under the Governor and his council.
• A bicameral central legislature – Council of State and Central Legislative Assembly.
• Separate electorates extended to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans; very limited franchise.
• A review after ten years, which led to the Simon Commission (1927) – boycotted because it had no Indian member.
• Steps before 1935: Nehru Report (1928), three Round Table Conferences (1930–32), the Communal Award (1932) and the Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and Dr Ambedkar, which gave reserved seats to the depressed classes in joint electorates.
• Government of India Act, 1935:
• Proposed an All-India Federation of provinces and princely states (never formed, because the princes did not join).
• Provincial autonomy: dyarchy ended in the provinces; elected ministries ran all provincial subjects.
• Dyarchy at the Centre (never put into effect).
• Three lists of subjects – Federal, Provincial and Concurrent.
• A Federal Court (set up 1937); Burma separated from India; new provinces of Sind and Orissa.
• Separate electorates continued; franchise widened to roughly a tenth of the population.
• Elections of 1937: the Congress formed ministries in most provinces; they resigned in 1939 when Britain dragged India into World War II without consultation.

Important terms

• Separate electorate – seats for a community elected only by voters of that community.
• Dyarchy – "double rule"; division of provincial subjects between Indian ministers and British officials.
• Provincial autonomy – provinces run by elected ministers with wide powers.
• Federation – a union in which powers are divided between the centre and the units.
• Franchise – the right to vote.

Important dates and people

• 1909 – Morley-Minto Reforms (Lord Morley, Secretary of State; Lord Minto, Viceroy).
• 1917 – Montagu Declaration; 1919 – Government of India Act.
• 1927 – Simon Commission; 1932 – Poona Pact.
• 1935 – Government of India Act; 1937 – provincial elections.

5 important questions

Q1. What was dyarchy?

A system under the 1919 Act in which provincial subjects were divided into transferred subjects (under Indian ministers) and reserved subjects (under the Governor and his council).

Q2. Why is the 1909 Act criticised?

Because it introduced separate electorates for Muslims, which encouraged communal politics.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the Morley-Minto Reforms.

• Expanded councils.
• New rights of members.
• Indian in the Executive Council.
• Separate electorates; evaluation.

Q4. Describe the Government of India Act, 1919 and its working.

• Dyarchy and central legislature.
• Franchise and electorates.
• Defects of dyarchy.
• Indian reaction.

Q5. Discuss the main features and importance of the Government of India Act, 1935.

• Federation, provincial autonomy, three lists.
• Federal Court; separation of Burma.
• 1937 elections.
• Influence on the Constitution of India.

Exam tip

Present the three Acts in a comparison table (year, Viceroy/Secretary, key features, defects). It makes long answers easy to write and read.

Quick summary

From 1919 to 1947, Mahatma Gandhi led the Indian freedom struggle. He turned it into a mass movement using satyagraha (truth-force) and non-violence. The three great mass movements were the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34) and the Quit India Movement (1942).

Key points

• Gandhi (born 2 October 1869, Porbandar) used satyagraha first in South Africa against racial laws; returned to India in 1915. His political guru was Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Early satyagrahas: Champaran (1917) for indigo farmers in Bihar; Ahmedabad mill strike (1918); Kheda (1918) for peasants in Gujarat, with Sardar Patel.
• Rowlatt Act (1919) allowed detention without trial. Gandhi called the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
• Jallianwala Bagh massacre, 13 April 1919, Amritsar: General Dyer ordered firing on a peaceful crowd. Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood.
• Khilafat Movement (Ali brothers) joined with Congress.
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): approved at the Nagpur session (December 1920). Boycott of government schools, courts, councils, foreign cloth; return of titles; swadeshi and khadi. Called off after the Chauri Chaura incident (4 February 1922), where police were killed; Gandhi called the movement off on 12 February 1922.
• Swaraj Party (1923) of C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru entered councils.
• Simon Commission (1928) had no Indian member – "Simon Go Back"; Lala Lajpat Rai died after a lathi charge.
• Lahore session (December 1929), president Jawaharlal Nehru: resolution for Purna Swaraj; 26 January 1930 observed as Independence Day.
• Civil Disobedience Movement: Dandi March from Sabarmati, 12 March–6 April 1930, to break the salt law. Boycott, no-tax campaigns, Dharasana salt raid. In Maharashtra, forest satyagraha (jungle satyagraha) took place, including in Vidarbha.
• Round Table Conferences (1930, 1931, 1932) in London; Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931); Gandhi attended the Second RTC.
• Communal Award (1932) and Poona Pact (24 September 1932) between Gandhi and Dr. Ambedkar – reserved seats for depressed classes within joint electorates.
• Government of India Act 1935: provincial autonomy; Congress formed ministries in 1937.
• Individual Satyagraha (1940): first satyagrahi Vinoba Bhave (from Paunar, Wardha), second Nehru.
• Cripps Mission (1942) failed.
• Quit India Movement: resolution at Bombay (Gowalia Tank) on 8 August 1942; slogan "Do or Die". Leaders arrested on 9 August; underground activity (Aruna Asaf Ali, Jayaprakash Narayan, Usha Mehta's secret radio); parallel governments at Satara (Prati Sarkar, under Nana Patil), Ballia and Tamluk. Chimur and Ashti in Vidarbha also saw major uprisings.
• Gandhi's Sevagram Ashram near Wardha was a centre of the movement from 1936.

Important terms

• Satyagraha – non-violent resistance based on truth.
• Ahimsa – non-violence.
• Purna Swaraj – complete independence.
• Civil disobedience – peaceful breaking of unjust laws.
• Prati Sarkar – parallel government in Satara.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement withdrawn?

Gandhi withdrew it in February 1922 after a violent mob burnt a police station at Chauri Chaura and killed policemen. He felt people were not yet ready for non-violent struggle.

Q2. What was the Poona Pact?

An agreement in September 1932 between Gandhi and Dr. Ambedkar. Separate electorates for depressed classes were replaced by reserved seats for them within joint electorates.

Q3. Describe the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• Background: Purna Swaraj, Simon Commission.
• Dandi March 1930.
• Salt satyagraha, boycott, no-tax, forest satyagraha.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Second RTC.
• Second phase and end in 1934.
• Mass participation of women.

Q4. Explain the Quit India Movement.

• Causes: Cripps failure, war, Japanese threat.
• 8 August 1942 resolution; "Do or Die".
• Arrests; spontaneous uprisings.
• Underground leaders; parallel governments (Satara).
• Repression; significance – showed India's will for freedom.

Q5. Assess Gandhi's contribution to the freedom movement.

• Made it a mass movement.
• Satyagraha and non-violence.
• Constructive programme: khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability.
• Involved women and peasants.
• Moral pressure on British.

Exam tip

Mention Maharashtra/Vidarbha events (Nagpur session 1920, forest satyagraha, Chimur 1942, Satara Prati Sarkar) to add local depth.

Quick summary

Alongside the non-violent movement, many young Indians chose the path of armed revolution to free India. Revolutionary activity grew in Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab, and among Indians abroad. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad and others made sacrifices that inspired the nation. Subhas Chandra Bose led the Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army, INA) during the Second World War.

Key points

• Early revolutionaries in Maharashtra: Vasudev Balwant Phadke organised an armed revolt in 1879; called the "father of armed struggle" by many.
• Chapekar brothers (Damodar and Balkrishna) shot the plague commissioner W. C. Rand in Pune (1897).
• V. D. Savarkar founded Mitra Mela (1899), later Abhinav Bharat (1904). He was sentenced to the Cellular Jail (Andaman).
• Anant Kanhere shot Nashik collector Jackson (1909).
• Bengal: Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar. Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki (Muzaffarpur bomb, 1908); Alipore Bomb case (Aurobindo Ghosh).
• Abroad: India House in London (Shyamji Krishna Varma); Madan Lal Dhingra shot Curzon Wyllie (1909). Ghadar Party (1913, San Francisco), Lala Har Dayal; Komagata Maru incident (1914).
• Hindustan Republican Association (1924); Kakori train action (1925) – Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan Singh were hanged.
• Renamed Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928 under Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh.
• Saunders' killing (1928) in Lahore to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai's death.
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw harmless bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929, shouting "Inquilab Zindabad".
• Bhagat Singh, Rajguru (from Khed, Pune district) and Sukhdev were hanged on 23 March 1931.
• Chandrashekhar Azad died fighting at Alfred Park, Allahabad (1931).
• Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930) led by Surya Sen.
• Subhas Chandra Bose: resigned from ICS (1921); Congress President at Haripura (1938) and Tripuri (1939); resigned after differences with Gandhi and formed the Forward Bloc (1939).
• Escaped house arrest in 1941, reached Germany, then Japan-controlled South-East Asia (1943).
• INA was first formed by Mohan Singh with help of Japan; Rash Behari Bose handed it over to Subhas Bose in 1943.
• Bose formed the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) at Singapore on 21 October 1943. Slogans: "Dilli Chalo", "Give me blood, and I will give you freedom". He was called "Netaji". The Rani of Jhansi Regiment (Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan) was a women's unit.
• INA fought on the Imphal-Kohima front (1944) but had to retreat.
• Bose is believed to have died in a plane crash at Taipei in August 1945 (this remains debated).
• INA trials (1945–46) at the Red Fort (Shah Nawaz Khan, P. K. Sahgal, G. S. Dhillon) caused nationwide protests; followed by the RIN (Naval) Mutiny, February 1946 in Bombay.

Important terms

• Revolutionary nationalism – armed struggle for independence.
• HSRA – Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.
• INA / Azad Hind Fauj – Indian National Army.
• Cellular Jail – prison in Andaman ("Kala Pani").
• Ghadar – "revolt"; name of a party of Indians abroad.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who were the Chapekar brothers?

Damodar and Balkrishna Chapekar of Pune shot the British plague commissioner W. C. Rand in 1897, angered by harsh plague measures. They were hanged.

Q2. What was the Assembly bomb incident?

On 8 April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw harmless bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly to protest repressive bills. They courted arrest shouting "Inquilab Zindabad".

Q3. Describe the revolutionary movement in Maharashtra.

• Vasudev Balwant Phadke.
• Chapekar brothers.
• Savarkar – Mitra Mela, Abhinav Bharat.
• Anant Kanhere – Jackson's killing.
• Rajguru's sacrifice.
• Inspired youth across India.

Q4. Explain the role of Subhas Chandra Bose in the freedom struggle.

• Congress President; Forward Bloc.
• Escape and contacts with Axis powers.
• INA leadership; Azad Hind government.
• Slogans; women's regiment.
• Imphal-Kohima campaign.
• INA trials united the nation.

Q5. Assess the contribution of the revolutionaries to Indian independence.

• Self-sacrifice inspired youth.
• Fear among British officials.
• HSRA spread socialist ideas.
• Kept spirit alive between mass movements.
• Limits: small numbers, repression.
• INA and naval mutiny shook British confidence.

Exam tip

Write dates of Bhagat Singh's martyrdom (23 March 1931) and the Azad Hind government (21 October 1943) – common short questions.

Quick summary

Maharashtra was one of the leading regions of India's freedom struggle. Pune and Bombay produced early leaders like Ranade, Gokhale and Tilak, and revolutionaries like the Chapekar brothers and Savarkar. Vidarbha played a special role: the Nagpur Congress (1920) approved Non-Cooperation, Gandhiji made Sevagram (Wardha) his base, and Chimur and Ashti rose in revolt in 1942. The Quit India resolution itself was passed in Bombay.

Key points

• Early organisations: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) with Justice M. G. Ranade; Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society (1905); Tilak led assertive nationalism through Kesari, Ganeshotsav and Shivjayanti.
• Revolutionaries: the Chapekar brothers shot Plague Commissioner Rand in Pune (1897); V. D. Savarkar founded Mitra Mela and Abhinav Bharat; Anant Kanhere shot Nashik Collector Jackson (1909).
• Nagpur session of the Congress (December 1920) approved the Non-Cooperation programme and reorganised the Congress on a linguistic-provincial basis.
• Flag (Jhanda) Satyagraha, Nagpur (1923): volunteers from all over India defied the ban on carrying the national flag in the civil lines.
• Civil Disobedience (1930): salt satyagraha at Wadala (Bombay) and Shiroda (Konkan); forest (jungle) satyagraha in Vidarbha and the Central Provinces, e.g. at Pusad led by Bapuji Aney.
• Faizpur (Jalgaon) session (1936) – the first Congress session held in a village.
• Gandhiji at Sevagram: from 1936 the ashram near Wardha became a national centre; the Wardha scheme of basic education (Nai Talim) was proposed in 1937.
• Quit India: the Congress Working Committee met at Wardha (July 1942) and the AICC passed the Quit India resolution at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, on 8 August 1942. Usha Mehta ran the secret Congress Radio.
• Chimur and Ashti (August 1942): people of Chimur (Chandrapur district) and Ashti (Wardha district) rose against British rule; many were killed or later hanged. Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj's songs inspired the people of Chimur.
• Prati Sarkar of Satara (1943–46): a parallel government led by Krantisinh Nana Patil.
• Naval Mutiny (February 1946): ratings of the Royal Indian Navy revolted in Bombay.
• Women such as Avantikabai Gokhale and many peasants, workers and students took part.

Important terms

• Jhanda Satyagraha – the flag satyagraha at Nagpur, 1923.
• Jungle (forest) satyagraha – breaking forest laws as civil disobedience.
• Prati Sarkar – parallel government.
• Nai Talim – Gandhiji's basic education through useful work.

Important dates and people

• 1897 – Rand murder (Chapekars).
• 1920 – Nagpur Congress.
• 1923 – Flag Satyagraha, Nagpur.
• 8 August 1942 – Quit India resolution, Bombay; 16 August 1942 – Chimur uprising (approx.).
• 1943–46 – Satara Prati Sarkar.

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Jhanda Satyagraha?

A satyagraha at Nagpur in 1923 in which volunteers defied the government's ban on carrying the national flag in certain areas.

Q2. Where was the Quit India resolution passed?

At Gowalia Tank (August Kranti Maidan), Bombay, on 8 August 1942.

Q3. Describe the contribution of Maharashtra to the early national movement.

• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Ranade.
• Gokhale and Tilak.
• Revolutionaries.
• Press.

Q4. Write a note on Vidarbha's role in the freedom struggle.

• Nagpur Congress 1920.
• Flag Satyagraha 1923.
• Forest satyagraha; Sevagram.
• Chimur and Ashti, 1942.

Q5. Explain the Quit India Movement in Maharashtra.

• Wardha and Bombay meetings.
• Underground work, Congress Radio.
• Chimur, Ashti.
• Satara Prati Sarkar.

Exam tip

Use local names and places – Chimur, Ashti, Sevagram, Nagpur – with dates. RTMNU examiners value Vidarbha examples.

Quick summary

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956) was a great scholar, social reformer and the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. He fought against untouchability and caste discrimination and worked for the rights of Dalits, women and workers. His struggle for social justice led to strong protections in the Constitution. He embraced Buddhism at Nagpur on 14 October 1956.

Key points

• Born on 14 April 1891 at Mhow (Madhya Pradesh); family from Ambadave village, Ratnagiri district.
• Higher studies: Columbia University (MA, PhD) and London School of Economics (DSc), and barrister from Gray's Inn – supported by Sayajirao Gaekwad of Baroda.
• Started newspapers: ***Mooknayak* (1920), Bahishkrit Bharat (1927)**, Janata, Prabuddha Bharat.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj supported him; Mangaon conference (1920).
• Founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924) with the motto "Educate, Agitate, Organise".
• Mahad Satyagraha (20 March 1927) for the right to use water of the Chavdar tank; on 25 December 1927 he publicly burnt the Manusmriti.
• Kalaram Temple entry satyagraha at Nashik (1930).
• Attended all three Round Table Conferences; demanded separate electorates for depressed classes.
• Communal Award (1932) gave separate electorates; Gandhi fasted; the Poona Pact (24 September 1932) gave reserved seats within joint electorates.
• At Yeola (1935) he declared he would not die a Hindu.
• Founded the Independent Labour Party (1936) and the Scheduled Castes Federation (1942).
• Labour Member in the Viceroy's Executive Council (1942–46).
• Founded the People's Education Society (1945); Siddharth College, Mumbai, and Milind College, Aurangabad.
• Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution; first Law Minister of independent India.
• Resigned in 1951 over the Hindu Code Bill, which aimed to give women equal rights in marriage, divorce and property.
• Constitutional provisions reflecting his idea of social justice: Article 17 (abolition of untouchability), Articles 15, 16, 46, reservations in legislatures (Art. 330, 332), Article 32.
• Books: ***Annihilation of Caste* (1936)**, The Problem of the Rupee, Who Were the Shudras?, The Buddha and His Dhamma.
• Dhammachakra Pravartan: embraced Buddhism with lakhs of followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur, 14 October 1956.
• Died on 6 December 1956 (Mahaparinirvan Din) in Delhi. Awarded Bharat Ratna in 1990.

Important terms

• Social justice – equal dignity and opportunity for all, especially the oppressed.
• Depressed classes – earlier term for Scheduled Castes.
• Satyagraha – non-violent struggle (Mahad, Kalaram).
• Deekshabhoomi – place of conversion at Nagpur.
• Hindu Code Bill – reform of Hindu personal law for women's rights.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Mahad Satyagraha?

In March 1927 Dr. Ambedkar led untouchables to drink water from the Chavdar tank at Mahad, which they had been barred from. It asserted their equal civic rights.

Q2. Why did Dr. Ambedkar resign as Law Minister?

He resigned in 1951 because the Hindu Code Bill, which gave women equal rights in property, marriage and divorce, was not passed as he wanted.

Q3. Explain Dr. Ambedkar's struggle against untouchability.

• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha.
• Newspapers.
• Mahad and Kalaram satyagrahas.
• Burning of Manusmriti.
• Round Table Conferences; Poona Pact.
• Constitutional safeguards.

Q4. Describe Dr. Ambedkar's contribution to the Indian Constitution.

• Chairman of Drafting Committee.
• Fundamental Rights, Article 17, 32.
• Reservations and safeguards.
• Federal structure with strong centre.
• Warning about social and economic democracy.

Q5. Discuss Dr. Ambedkar's views on social justice and women's rights.

• Caste as the root of injustice; Annihilation of Caste.
• Education as a weapon.
• Equality of status and opportunity.
• Hindu Code Bill – women's rights.
• Labour rights.
• Buddhism as a path of equality.

Exam tip

Learn the motto "Educate, Agitate, Organise" and the key dates (1927, 1930, 1932, 1956) – they form the backbone of any answer.

Quick summary

Communal politics – organising people mainly as members of a religious community – grew in India from the late 19th century. The All-India Muslim League was founded in 1906, and the British encouraged division through separate electorates. There were periods of Hindu-Muslim unity (Lucknow Pact, Khilafat), but by the 1930s the two-nation theory gained ground, leading to the Lahore (Pakistan) Resolution of 1940.

Key points

• Background: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's Aligarh Movement promoted modern education among Muslims (MAO College, Aligarh, 1875) and advised them to stay away from the Congress.
• British policy of "divide and rule" after 1857, and fears of the Muslim elite about majority rule.
• Simla Deputation (1 October 1906): Muslim leaders led by the Aga Khan met Viceroy Minto and demanded separate electorates.
• All-India Muslim League founded at Dhaka on 30 December 1906 (Nawab Salimullah; Aga Khan its first president). It supported the Partition of Bengal.
• Separate electorates were granted in the 1909 Act.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): the Congress and the League agreed on joint demands; the Congress accepted separate electorates. M. A. Jinnah played a key role.
• Khilafat and Non-Cooperation (1919–22): a high point of Hindu-Muslim unity under the Ali brothers and Gandhiji.
• After 1922 communal riots increased; the Hindu Mahasabha (1915) and other communal bodies also grew.
• Nehru Report (1928) rejected separate electorates; Jinnah answered with his Fourteen Points (1929).
• Muhammad Iqbal's Allahabad address (1930) proposed a Muslim state in north-west India; Choudhary Rahmat Ali coined the name "Pakistan" (1933).
• 1937 elections: the League did poorly; the Congress refused a coalition with it in the United Provinces. Jinnah reorganised the League and called the end of Congress ministries a "Day of Deliverance" (22 December 1939).
• Two-nation theory: Hindus and Muslims were described as two separate nations.
• Lahore Resolution (23 March 1940) demanded independent states for Muslim-majority areas – the basis of the Pakistan demand.

Important terms

• Communalism – politics based on religious community against other communities.
• Separate electorate – seats elected only by voters of one community.
• Two-nation theory – the claim that Hindus and Muslims form two nations.
• Lucknow Pact – Congress-League agreement of 1916.

Important dates and people

• 1875 – MAO College, Aligarh.
• 1906 – Simla Deputation; Muslim League founded.
• 1916 – Lucknow Pact.
• 1929 – Jinnah's Fourteen Points; 1930 – Iqbal's address.
• 1940 – Lahore Resolution.

5 important questions

Q1. When and where was the Muslim League founded?

On 30 December 1906 at Dhaka.

Q2. What was the Lucknow Pact?

An agreement of 1916 between the Congress and the Muslim League to make joint demands; the Congress accepted separate electorates.

Q3. Explain the causes of the growth of communalism in modern India.

• British divide-and-rule policy.
• Separate electorates.
• Economic backwardness and competition for jobs.
• Communal organisations and propaganda.

Q4. Trace the history of the Muslim League from 1906 to 1940.

• Foundation and early aims.
• Lucknow Pact and Khilafat.
• Fourteen Points; Iqbal.
• 1937 elections; Lahore Resolution.

Q5. Discuss the two-nation theory and its consequences.

• Meaning and supporters.
• Response of nationalist leaders.
• Lahore Resolution.
• Partition of 1947.

Exam tip

Learn the chain 1906 – 1909 – 1916 – 1929 – 1940. Mention the British role in every answer on communalism.

Quick summary

After the Second World War, Britain was weak and Indian demands for freedom were strong. The Cabinet Mission (1946) failed to keep India united; communal violence grew after the Muslim League's Direct Action Day. Finally, the Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) and the Indian Independence Act 1947 divided British India into two dominions, India and Pakistan, on 15 August 1947 (Pakistan on 14 August).

Key points

• Growth of communalism: separate electorates (1909), British policy of "divide and rule", the two-nation theory.
• The Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah passed the Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution) on 23 March 1940, demanding separate Muslim states.
• August Offer (1940), Cripps Mission (1942) – offered dominion status after the war with the right of provinces to opt out; rejected.
• C. R. Formula (1944) of C. Rajagopalachari and Gandhi-Jinnah talks (1944) failed.
• Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (June 1945) failed over the League's demand to nominate all Muslim members.
• Elections of 1945–46: Congress won most general seats; League won most Muslim seats.
• Cabinet Mission (March–June 1946): Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A. V. Alexander. Proposed a Union of India with limited central powers, grouping of provinces (A, B, C), and a Constituent Assembly. Rejected the demand for a full Pakistan.
• Direct Action Day (16 August 1946): League's call led to massive riots in Calcutta (the "Great Calcutta Killing"), then Noakhali and Bihar.
• Interim Government formed on 2 September 1946 under Jawaharlal Nehru; the League joined later.
• Attlee's declaration (20 February 1947): Britain would leave India by June 1948.
• Lord Mountbatten became Viceroy in March 1947.
• Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947): partition of India; partition of Punjab and Bengal by vote of their legislators; referendums in NWFP and Sylhet; princely states free to join either dominion.
• Indian Independence Act passed by the British Parliament in July 1947 (royal assent 18 July 1947): two dominions from 15 August 1947; British paramountcy over princely states ended.
• Radcliffe Line: boundary drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe; announced on 17 August 1947.
• Partition violence: lakhs killed and about 1–1.5 crore people displaced (estimates vary widely); huge refugee problem.
• Integration of princely states: about 560+ states; Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon used the Instrument of Accession. Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Operation Polo, September 1948), and Kashmir (accession, October 1947) were difficult cases.
• Marathwada was part of Hyderabad State; it was freed in 1948 (Marathwada Liberation Day – 17 September).
• Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948.
• Why partition was accepted: to stop communal violence, the League's refusal to cooperate, failure of the Interim Government, urgency of transfer of power.

Important terms

• Two-nation theory – idea that Hindus and Muslims are separate nations.
• Dominion – self-governing state under the British Crown.
• Radcliffe Line – India-Pakistan boundary.
• Instrument of Accession – document by which a princely state joined India.
• Paramountcy – British supremacy over princely states.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Mountbatten Plan?

Announced on 3 June 1947, it proposed the partition of British India into India and Pakistan, partition of Punjab and Bengal, and freedom for princely states to join either dominion.

Q2. What was Direct Action Day?

It was 16 August 1946, when the Muslim League called for direct action to achieve Pakistan. It led to terrible communal riots in Calcutta.

Q3. Explain the proposals of the Cabinet Mission Plan.

• Union of India with defence, foreign affairs, communications.
• Provinces with residuary powers.
• Grouping of provinces A, B, C.
• Constituent Assembly.
• Interim Government.
• Rejected full Pakistan.

Q4. Describe the main provisions of the Indian Independence Act 1947.

• Two dominions from 15 August 1947.
• Partition of Punjab and Bengal.
• Constituent Assemblies as legislatures.
• End of the Secretary of State's office.
• Paramountcy lapsed.
• Governor-General for each dominion.

Q5. Explain the role of Sardar Patel in the integration of princely states.

• States Department with V. P. Menon.
• Instrument of Accession and Standstill Agreement.
• Persuasion and pressure.
• Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir cases.
• Created a united India – "Iron Man of India".

Exam tip

A clear chronology from 1940 to 1948 is the best structure for any question on partition.

Quick summary

At independence India had more than 560 princely states covering about two-fifths of its area. When British paramountcy ended in 1947, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon brought almost all of them into the Indian Union through the Instrument of Accession. Junagadh, Kashmir and Hyderabad were difficult cases. Hyderabad, which included Marathwada, was freed on 17 September 1948 after a people's struggle and police action.

Key points

• Paramountcy lapsed: under the Indian Independence Act (1947), princes were free to join India or Pakistan or, in theory, stay independent.
• The States Department was set up in July 1947 under Sardar Patel, with V. P. Menon as secretary.
• Instrument of Accession: states handed over defence, external affairs and communications to India. A Standstill Agreement kept existing arrangements going.
• By 15 August 1947 almost all states had acceded, helped by Patel's persuasion and the pressure of people's movements in the states (praja mandals).
• Junagadh: the Nawab acceded to Pakistan though most people were Hindu; after a popular revolt and Indian action, a plebiscite (February 1948) confirmed union with India.
• Kashmir: Maharaja Hari Singh delayed; after tribal raiders from Pakistan invaded, he signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947.
• Hyderabad: ruled by Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan; it included Telangana, Marathwada and parts of Karnataka. The Nizam wanted independence and signed only a Standstill Agreement (November 1947).
• The Razakars, an armed militia led by Qasim Rizvi, terrorised the people.
• Hyderabad Liberation Struggle: the Hyderabad State Congress under Swami Ramanand Tirth led satyagraha and an armed resistance from border camps; in Marathwada leaders such as Govindbhai Shroff and others organised the people. The Telangana peasants also rose.
• Operation Polo (police action), 13–17 September 1948: the Indian Army entered Hyderabad; the Nizam surrendered on 17 September 1948. The day is celebrated as Marathwada Mukti Sangram Din.
• After integration: smaller states were merged into provinces or grouped into unions; princes received privy purses (abolished in 1971); the States Reorganisation Act (1956) redrew boundaries, and Marathwada later became part of Bombay State and then Maharashtra (1960).

Important terms

• Princely state – a state ruled by an Indian prince under British paramountcy.
• Paramountcy – British supremacy over the princely states.
• Instrument of Accession – the document by which a state joined India.
• Razakars – armed volunteers of the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen in Hyderabad.
• Privy purse – annual allowance paid to former rulers.

Important dates and people

• 5 July 1947 – States Department begins work (approx.).
• 26 October 1947 – Kashmir accedes.
• February 1948 – Junagadh plebiscite.
• 13–17 September 1948 – Operation Polo; 17 September – Hyderabad liberated.
• Sardar Patel – "Iron Man of India".

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Instrument of Accession?

The legal document by which a princely state joined the Indian Union, handing over defence, external affairs and communications.

Q2. What is celebrated on 17 September in Maharashtra?

Marathwada Mukti Sangram Din, marking the liberation of Hyderabad State (including Marathwada) from the Nizam's rule in 1948.

Q3. Describe the role of Sardar Patel in the integration of princely states.

• States Department and V. P. Menon.
• Persuasion and pressure.
• Instrument of Accession and Standstill Agreement.
• Results.

Q4. Explain the cases of Junagadh and Kashmir.

• Junagadh: Nawab's choice, revolt, plebiscite.
• Kashmir: delay, invasion, accession.
• Consequences.

Q5. Write an account of the Hyderabad Liberation Struggle.

• Nizam's policy and the Razakars.
• Hyderabad State Congress, Swami Ramanand Tirth.
• Struggle in Marathwada and Telangana.
• Operation Polo and its results.

Exam tip

For Maharashtra exams, always connect Hyderabad with Marathwada and 17 September. Name Swami Ramanand Tirth and Operation Polo.

Quick summary

The Samyukta Maharashtra Movement (1946–1960) demanded a single state for all Marathi-speaking people, with Mumbai as its capital. Marathi areas were then divided among the Bombay State, the Central Provinces and Berar (Vidarbha) and Hyderabad State (Marathwada). After a long struggle, including the sacrifice of 106 martyrs, the state of Maharashtra was formed on 1 May 1960.

Key points

• Background: demand for linguistic provinces had been accepted by the Congress in its Nagpur session (1920).
• Samyukta Maharashtra Parishad was formed in 1946 (Belgaum sahitya sammelan resolution); Shankarrao Deo was a leading figure.
• Dar Commission (1948) and the JVP Committee (1948–49) of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya did not favour immediate linguistic states.
• Akola Pact (1947) and Nagpur Pact (28 September 1953): leaders of Vidarbha, Marathwada and western Maharashtra agreed to join one state. The Nagpur Pact promised one session of the legislature every year at Nagpur, a High Court bench at Nagpur, and fair development of backward regions.
• Potti Sriramulu's death (1952) after fasting led to the creation of Andhra State (1953).
• States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) (1953–55): Fazal Ali (chairman), H. N. Kunzru, K. M. Panikkar. It recommended a bilingual Bombay State and a separate Vidarbha state.
• The central plan of 1956 to make Mumbai a separate centrally administered unit caused anger.
• Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti was formed on 6 February 1956. Leaders: Keshavrao Jedhe, S. M. Joshi, Acharya Prahlad Keshav Atre (newspaper Maratha), Shripad Amrit Dange, Prabodhankar Thackeray, Senapati Bapat, Uddhavrao Patil.
• Flora Fountain firing (21 November 1955) and firing in January 1956 in Mumbai killed many protesters. In all, 106 people were killed; Hutatma Chowk (Martyrs' Square) at Flora Fountain is their memorial.
• C. D. Deshmukh resigned from the Union Cabinet (Finance Minister) in 1956 in protest.
• Shahir Amar Shaikh, Shahir Annabhau Sathe and Shahir Gavhankar spread the movement through songs and powadas.
• States Reorganisation Act, 1956: a large bilingual Bombay State formed on 1 November 1956, including Marathwada and Vidarbha (Marathi areas of Madhya Pradesh), with Gujarat; Yashwantrao Chavan became its Chief Minister.
• In the 1957 elections, the Samiti did very well in Marathi areas, showing popular support.
• Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960: Bombay State divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat on 1 May 1960. Mumbai became the capital of Maharashtra. Yashwantrao Chavan was the first Chief Minister.
• Marathi-speaking areas like Belgaum, Karwar and Nipani remained in Mysore (Karnataka); the border dispute continues.
• 1 May is celebrated as Maharashtra Din.

Important terms

• Samyukta Maharashtra – united Maharashtra of all Marathi speakers.
• Linguistic state – state formed on the basis of language.
• Bilingual state – state with two major language groups (Bombay State 1956–60).
• Hutatma – martyr.
• Nagpur Pact – agreement ensuring Vidarbha's place in the new state.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Nagpur Pact?

Signed on 28 September 1953, it was an agreement among leaders of Vidarbha, Marathwada and western Maharashtra to form a united Marathi state. It promised a legislature session at Nagpur and fair development of all regions.

Q2. What is Hutatma Chowk?

It is the memorial at Flora Fountain, Mumbai, built in honour of the 106 martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement.

Q3. Describe the role of the States Reorganisation Commission.

• Members: Fazal Ali, Kunzru, Panikkar.
• Recommended linguistic states broadly.
• Bombay bilingual state; separate Vidarbha.
• Mumbai issue sparked agitation.
• Led to 1956 Act.

Q4. Explain the contribution of leaders and shahirs to the movement.

• S. M. Joshi, Dange, Atre, Jedhe, Prabodhankar Thackeray.
• Acharya Atre's newspaper Maratha.
• C. D. Deshmukh's resignation.
• Shahirs Amar Shaikh, Annabhau Sathe.
• Mass mobilisation of workers and peasants.

Q5. Give an account of the formation of Maharashtra state.

• Background and early demand.
• SRC and bilingual state.
• Samiti's agitation; 106 martyrs.
• 1957 elections.
• Bombay Reorganisation Act 1960.
• 1 May 1960 – Maharashtra with Mumbai.

Exam tip

This is a favourite topic in Maharashtra universities – remember the 106 martyrs, Nagpur Pact (1953) and 1 May 1960.