राज्यशास्त्र Political Science

Quick summary

The Indian National Movement was the long struggle (1885–1947) to free India from British rule. It moved through three main phases: the Moderate phase (1885–1905), which used petitions and constitutional methods; the Extremist phase (1905–1919), which demanded Swaraj through boycott and Swadeshi, alongside revolutionary groups; and the Gandhian phase (1919–1947), which made it a mass movement through non-violent Satyagraha. Its ideas – democracy, secularism, social justice – shaped the Constitution.

Key points

• Causes of nationalism: economic exploitation (drain of wealth – Dadabhai Naoroji), Western education and English language, social reform movements, press and literature, railways and communication, racial discrimination (Ilbert Bill controversy, 1883).
• Indian National Congress founded on 28 December 1885 in Bombay; A. O. Hume helped; first president W. C. Bonnerjee.
• Moderates (1885–1905): Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, M. G. Ranade. Methods: prayers, petitions, protests (the "3 Ps"); faith in British justice. Demands: more Indians in councils and services, reduction of military expenditure. Achievement: political awakening, economic critique of British rule.
• Extremists (1905–1919): Lal–Bal–Pal – Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal – and Aurobindo Ghosh. Tilak: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it." Methods: boycott, Swadeshi, national education, mass mobilisation.
• Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon started the Swadeshi movement. Surat Split (1907) divided Moderates and Extremists. Muslim League founded in 1906.
• Revolutionaries: Chapekar brothers (Pune, 1897), V. D. Savarkar (Abhinav Bharat), Khudiram Bose, Ghadar Party (1913), Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad (HSRA), Subhas Chandra Bose (INA).
• Home Rule Leagues (1916): Tilak and Annie Besant. Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress–League unity.
• Gandhian phase: Champaran (1917), Kheda (1918), Ahmedabad mill strike (1918); Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh (13 April 1919).
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): boycott of schools, courts, councils and foreign cloth, with the Khilafat issue; withdrawn after Chauri Chaura (February 1922).
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930): Purna Swaraj resolution at Lahore (1929); Dandi March / Salt Satyagraha (12 March – 6 April 1930); Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931); Round Table Conferences.
• Quit India Movement (8 August 1942): "Do or Die"; a mass uprising.
• Independence: Cabinet Mission (1946), Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947), independence on 15 August 1947 with Partition.

Important terms

• Swaraj – self-rule.
• Swadeshi – use of goods made in one's own country.
• Boycott – refusal to use foreign goods or institutions.
• Satyagraha – non-violent resistance based on truth.
• Drain theory – Naoroji's idea that Britain drained India's wealth.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who were the Moderates?

The early Congress leaders (1885–1905), such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta, who believed in British justice and used constitutional methods like petitions and speeches to get reforms.

Q2. What was the Surat Split?

At the Surat session of the Congress in 1907, the Congress split into Moderates and Extremists over methods and leadership.

Q3. Explain the contribution of the Moderates and Extremists to the national movement.

• Moderates: aims, methods, economic critique, achievements, limits.
• Extremists: Lal–Bal–Pal, Swaraj, boycott and Swadeshi.
• Comparison of the two.

Q4. Explain the Non-Cooperation Movement.

• Background: Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat.
• Programme: boycott and constructive work.
• Spread and Chauri Chaura; withdrawal.
• Importance: first all-India mass movement.

Q5. Assess Gandhi's role in the Indian National Movement.

• Satyagraha and early local movements.
• Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Quit India.
• Mass participation of peasants, women, workers.
• Social programmes: untouchability, khadi, Hindu–Muslim unity.

Exam tip

Learn the timeline table well; one date error in a long answer looks careless.

Quick summary

Between 1909 and 1947 the British passed a series of Acts that slowly gave Indians a share in government and finally independence. The Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley–Minto) introduced separate electorates; the Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu–Chelmsford) brought dyarchy in the provinces; the Government of India Act 1935 gave provincial autonomy and proposed an all-India federation; the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) set up the Constituent Assembly; and the Indian Independence Act 1947 ended British rule. Many features of our Constitution come from these Acts, especially the 1935 Act.

Key points

Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms)

• John Morley (Secretary of State) and Lord Minto (Viceroy).
• Enlarged the central and provincial legislative councils; members could discuss the budget and ask supplementary questions.
• An Indian was appointed to the Viceroy's Executive Council (Satyendra Prasanna Sinha).
• Separate electorates for Muslims – "communal representation"; Lord Minto is called the "father of communal electorate".

Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms)

• Based on the Montagu Declaration (August 1917): gradual development of "responsible government".
• Dyarchy in provinces: subjects divided into reserved (police, finance, law – under the Governor and his councillors) and transferred (education, health, local government – under ministers responsible to the legislature).
• Bicameral central legislature (Central Legislative Assembly and Council of State).
• Separation of central and provincial subjects; extended communal representation to Sikhs and others; a Public Service Commission was proposed (set up in 1926).
• Dyarchy failed because of the Governor's veto and lack of finance for ministers.

Simon Commission (1927) – all-British; boycotted ("Simon, go back"). Nehru Report (1928) – Indian draft constitution.

Government of India Act, 1935

• Longest Act: 321 sections and 10 schedules.
• Proposed an All-India Federation of provinces and princely states (never came into force because the princes did not join).
• Divided powers into Federal, Provincial and Concurrent lists.
• Provincial autonomy: dyarchy abolished in provinces; ministers responsible to provincial legislatures. Elections of 1937: Congress formed ministries in most provinces.
• Dyarchy at the centre (not implemented).
• Federal Court (1937), Reserve Bank of India (1935), extended franchise, bicameralism in some provinces.
• Nehru called it "a machine with strong brakes but no engine".

Cripps Mission (1942), Cabinet Mission (1946): rejected Pakistan, proposed a three-tier federation and a Constituent Assembly elected by provincial assemblies, and an interim government.

Indian Independence Act, 1947 (based on the Mountbatten Plan of 3 June 1947)

• Created two dominions, India and Pakistan, from 15 August 1947.
• Ended British paramountcy over princely states.
• Constituent Assemblies became sovereign and also worked as the legislatures.

Important terms

• Separate electorate – voters of a community elect only their own representatives.
• Dyarchy – double government; subjects split between officials and responsible ministers.
• Provincial autonomy – self-government in provinces through responsible ministers.
• Dominion – self-governing country within the Commonwealth.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is dyarchy?

Dyarchy, introduced in the provinces by the Act of 1919, divided provincial subjects into reserved subjects under the Governor and transferred subjects under Indian ministers responsible to the legislature.

Q2. Why is Lord Minto called the father of communal electorate?

Because the Act of 1909 under him gave Muslims separate electorates, where only Muslim voters elected Muslim members.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the Government of India Act, 1919.

• Background: Montagu Declaration.
• Dyarchy, bicameral centre, division of subjects, communal representation.
• Working and failure of dyarchy.

Q4. Explain the main provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 and its importance.

• Federation, three lists, provincial autonomy, dyarchy at centre, Federal Court, RBI.
• Working in 1937.
• Influence on the Constitution.

Q5. Trace the constitutional development of India from 1909 to 1947.

• 1909, 1919, Simon Commission, 1935, Cripps, Cabinet Mission, 1947.
• Trend: from consultation to responsible government to independence.

Exam tip

Remember: about 250 articles of our Constitution are said to draw on the 1935 Act; mention it when writing on its importance.

Quick summary

The Constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly between 9 December 1946 and 26 November 1949. It came into force on 26 January 1950. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was President of the Assembly and Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The Constitution drew on India's freedom struggle, British-era Acts, and the constitutions of many countries.

Key points

• The idea of a Constituent Assembly was first put forward by M. N. Roy (1934); the Congress demanded it officially in 1935.
• The Assembly was formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946). Members were indirectly elected by the provincial legislative assemblies; princely states sent nominees.
• Total planned strength was 389; after Partition it was reduced to 299.
• First meeting: 9 December 1946; Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was temporary (interim) president.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected permanent President on 11 December 1946.
• Objectives Resolution moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946, adopted on 22 January 1947. It later became the basis of the Preamble.
• Drafting Committee was set up on 29 August 1947 with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as Chairman. Other members included N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, K. M. Munshi, Mohammad Saadulla, B. L. Mitter (replaced by N. Madhava Rau) and D. P. Khaitan (replaced by T. T. Krishnamachari).
• B. N. Rau was the Constitutional Adviser.
• Important committees: Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee (Nehru), Provincial Constitution Committee and Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities (Sardar Patel).
• The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 (now celebrated as Constitution Day / Samvidhan Divas). It took 2 years, 11 months and 18 days.
• It came into force on 26 January 1950, chosen because on 26 January 1930 the Congress had celebrated Purna Swaraj Day.
• At adoption it had a Preamble, 395 articles, 22 parts and 8 schedules.
• Sources: Government of India Act 1935 (federal scheme, emergency provisions), UK (parliamentary system, rule of law), USA (fundamental rights, judicial review), Ireland (Directive Principles), Canada (strong centre), Australia (concurrent list), USSR (fundamental duties, added later), Weimar Germany (suspension of rights in emergency), South Africa (amendment procedure).
• Ambedkar is called the chief architect of the Constitution.

Important terms

• Constituent Assembly – body elected to frame a constitution.
• Objectives Resolution – statement of the aims of the Constitution.
• Drafting Committee – committee that prepared the draft.
• Constitution Day – 26 November.
• Republic Day – 26 January.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee?

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, set up on 29 August 1947. He is called the chief architect of the Indian Constitution.

Q2. Why is 26 January celebrated as Republic Day?

The Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950. The date was chosen because on 26 January 1930 the Congress had observed Purna Swaraj (complete independence) Day.

Q3. Describe the composition of the Constituent Assembly.

• Formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946.
• Indirectly elected by provincial assemblies.
• Seats allotted on population basis; communities represented.
• Princely states' representatives nominated.
• 389 seats planned; 299 after Partition.
• Leading members: Nehru, Patel, Ambedkar, Rajendra Prasad, Maulana Azad.

Q4. Explain the role of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in the making of the Constitution.

• Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
• Piloted the draft through the Assembly.
• Defended its provisions in debates.
• Ensured rights, social justice, safeguards for weaker sections.
• Warned about the contradictions of political and social equality (25 November 1949 speech).

Q5. Discuss the sources of the Indian Constitution.

• Government of India Act 1935.
• British Constitution.
• US Constitution.
• Irish Constitution.
• Canadian and Australian Constitutions.
• Others: Weimar, USSR, South Africa, France.

Exam tip

Learn the five key dates (9-12-1946, 13-12-1946, 29-8-1947, 26-11-1949, 26-1-1950) – they appear in almost every paper.

Quick summary

The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution. It states the source of authority (the people), the nature of the Indian state (Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic) and its aims (Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity). The Constitution has many salient features: it is the longest written constitution, partly rigid and partly flexible, federal with a unitary bias, and parliamentary, with fundamental rights and independent judiciary.

Key points

• The Preamble (प्रास्ताविका / उद्देशिका) is based on Nehru's Objectives Resolution.
• It begins with "We, the People of India" – the people are the source of authority.
• Sovereign – India is free from external control.
• Socialist – aims to reduce inequality; added by the 42nd Amendment (1976).
• Secular – the state has no official religion and treats all religions equally; also added in 1976.
• Democratic – government elected by the people.
• Republic – head of state (President) is elected, not hereditary.
• Aims: Justice (social, economic, political), Liberty (thought, expression, belief, faith, worship), Equality (status and opportunity), Fraternity (dignity of the individual and unity and integrity of the nation – "integrity" added in 1976).
• Date of adoption mentioned in the Preamble: 26 November 1949.
• Berubari case (1960): the Supreme Court said the Preamble is not part of the Constitution. Kesavananda Bharati case (1973): it held that the Preamble is part of the Constitution and can be amended, but its basic structure cannot be destroyed.
• Salient features of the Constitution:

1. Lengthiest written constitution.
2. Drawn from various sources.
3. Blend of rigidity and flexibility (Article 368).
4. Federal system with unitary bias.
5. Parliamentary form of government.
6. Fundamental Rights (Part III).
7. Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV).
8. Fundamental Duties (Part IVA, Article 51A).
9. Independent and integrated judiciary; judicial review.
10. Single citizenship.
11. Universal adult franchise (voting age reduced from 21 to 18 by the 61st Amendment, 1988).
12. Secular state.
13. Emergency provisions.
14. Three-tier government (after the 73rd and 74th Amendments, 1992).
15. Independent bodies like the Election Commission and CAG.

Important terms

• Preamble – introductory statement of the Constitution.
• Republic – state with an elected head.
• Secularism – equal respect for all religions; no state religion.
• Fraternity – feeling of brotherhood.
• Basic structure – core features that cannot be amended away.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the meaning of "Republic" in the Preamble?

It means that the head of the state, the President, is elected and not hereditary. All public offices are open to every citizen.

Q2. Which words were added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment?

The 42nd Amendment (1976) added "Socialist", "Secular" and "Integrity" to the Preamble.

Q3. Explain the key words of the Preamble.

• We, the People – source of authority.
• Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.
• Justice – social, economic, political.
• Liberty – thought, expression, belief, faith, worship.
• Equality – status and opportunity.
• Fraternity – dignity and unity.

Q4. Is the Preamble a part of the Constitution? Discuss.

• Berubari case (1960): not a part.
• Kesavananda Bharati (1973): is a part.
• Can be amended without changing basic structure.
• Amended once (1976).
• Not enforceable in court but helps interpretation.

Q5. Describe the salient features of the Indian Constitution.

• Lengthy written constitution.
• Rigid and flexible.
• Federal with unitary bias.
• Parliamentary government.
• Fundamental rights, DPSP, duties.
• Independent judiciary; single citizenship; adult franchise; secularism.

Exam tip

Write the Preamble's key words in the same order as the original text – examiners check accuracy.

Quick summary

Fundamental Rights are basic rights guaranteed to citizens (and some to all persons) in Part III (Articles 12–35) of the Indian Constitution. They protect individual liberty and equality against the state. They are justiciable, which means a person can go to court if they are violated. There are now six Fundamental Rights; the Right to Property was removed in 1978.

Key points

• Inspired by the US Bill of Rights. Part III is called the Magna Carta of India.
• Originally seven rights; the Right to Property (Article 31) was removed by the 44th Amendment (1978) and is now a legal right under Article 300A.
• 1. Right to Equality (Articles 14–18):
• Art. 14 – equality before law and equal protection of laws.
• Art. 15 – no discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
• Art. 16 – equality of opportunity in public employment.
• Art. 17 – abolition of untouchability.
• Art. 18 – abolition of titles.
• 2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22): Art. 19 gives six freedoms – speech and expression, peaceful assembly, association, movement, residence, profession. Art. 20 – protection in conviction for offences. Art. 21 – protection of life and personal liberty. Art. 21A – right to education for children of 6–14 years (86th Amendment, 2002). Art. 22 – protection against arbitrary arrest.
• 3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24): bans human trafficking, forced labour (begar) and employment of children below 14 in factories, mines and hazardous work.
• 4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28).
• 5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30): protect minorities' culture and their right to run educational institutions.
• 6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): right to move the Supreme Court. Dr. Ambedkar called it the "heart and soul" of the Constitution.
• Five writs: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto. High Courts issue writs under Article 226.
• Rights are not absolute; reasonable restrictions can be imposed. Some rights can be suspended during a national emergency, but Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended (44th Amendment).
• Supreme Court has widened Article 21 to include right to privacy (Puttaswamy, 2017), livelihood, clean environment, etc.

Important terms

• Justiciable – enforceable by courts.
• Writ – order of a court to enforce rights.
• Habeas Corpus – "to have the body"; release from illegal detention.
• Mandamus – "we command"; order to a public official to do a duty.
• Quo Warranto – "by what authority"; challenge to holding a public office.
• Prohibition / Certiorari – orders to lower courts to stop / send up a case.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the writ of Habeas Corpus?

Habeas Corpus means "to have the body". The court orders a detained person to be produced before it, and releases him if the detention is illegal.

Q2. Why did Dr. Ambedkar call Article 32 the "heart and soul" of the Constitution?

Because Article 32 gives the right to go directly to the Supreme Court to enforce Fundamental Rights. Without it, the other rights would have no protection.

Q3. Explain the Right to Equality.

• Article 14 to 18 with meaning.
• Equality before law.
• No discrimination; special provisions allowed.
• Equal opportunity in jobs; reservations.
• Untouchability abolished.
• Titles abolished (except military/academic).

Q4. Describe the Right to Freedom under Articles 19–22.

• Six freedoms of Article 19.
• Reasonable restrictions.
• Article 20 – no ex post facto law, no double jeopardy, no self-incrimination.
• Article 21 – life and liberty; wide interpretation.
• Article 21A – education.
• Article 22 – rights of arrested persons.

Q5. Explain the Right to Constitutional Remedies and the five writs.

• Article 32 – Supreme Court; Article 226 – High Courts.
• Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto.
• Meaning of each in one line.
• Protects all other rights.

Exam tip

Always quote article numbers – a Fundamental Rights answer without articles loses marks.

Quick summary

While making the Constitution, the Constituent Assembly debated hard questions: who is a citizen of India, how minorities should be protected, and whether there should be one civil law for all (Uniform Civil Code). The Assembly chose single citizenship (Articles 5–11), cultural and educational rights for minorities (Articles 29–30) instead of separate electorates, and placed the Uniform Civil Code in the Directive Principles (Article 44) rather than making it compulsory. These questions are still debated today.

Key points

Citizenship

• Partition and large migration made citizenship a difficult question at the start of the Republic.
• Articles 5–11 dealt with citizenship on 26 January 1950: by domicile and birth (Art. 5), migrants from Pakistan (Art. 6), migrants to Pakistan (Art. 7), persons of Indian origin abroad (Art. 8). Art. 11 gave Parliament power to make citizenship law.
• The Assembly debated jus soli (birth) vs jus sanguinis (descent) and accepted a broad, civic idea of citizenship, not based on religion.
• Citizenship Act, 1955: acquisition by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation and incorporation of territory; later amendments narrowed citizenship by birth (1986, 2003).
• Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019: faster citizenship for Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and Christians from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan who entered India on or before 31 December 2014. Its rules were notified in 2024; it has been both supported and criticised, and petitions are before the Supreme Court.

Minority rights

• The Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal Areas was chaired by Sardar Patel; H. C. Mookerjee chaired the Minorities Sub-Committee.
• Separate electorates were rejected; reservation of seats for religious minorities was also given up in 1949. Reservation was kept for SCs and STs.
• Rights given: freedom of religion (Arts. 25–28), protection of language, script and culture (Art. 29), right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions (Art. 30).
• Debate: minority rights as a guarantee of equal citizenship vs fear that special rights may divide the nation. Ambedkar said minorities must have faith in the majority and the majority must not discriminate.

Uniform Civil Code (UCC) vs personal laws

• Personal laws govern marriage, divorce, inheritance and adoption according to religion.
• Article 44: "The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India."
• In the Assembly, members like Minoo Masani, Hansa Mehta, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and K. M. Munshi supported a UCC for equality and national unity; members like Mohamed Ismail and Naziruddin Ahmad opposed it as interference in religion. Dr. Ambedkar defended it and said it would be applied carefully.
• Hindu Code Bills (1955–56) reformed Hindu personal law.
• Court cases: Shah Bano (1985), Sarla Mudgal (1995), Shayara Bano (2017) – instant triple talaq held unconstitutional.
• Goa has a common civil code from Portuguese times; Uttarakhand passed a UCC Act in 2024.
• Arguments for UCC: gender justice, equality, secularism, simpler laws. Against: religious freedom, cultural diversity, fear among minorities; the 21st Law Commission (2018) said it was "neither necessary nor desirable at this stage".

Important terms

• Domicile – permanent home in a territory.
• Personal law – religion-based family law.
• Uniform Civil Code – one family law for all citizens.
• Minority – a group smaller in number than the majority, by religion or language.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What does Article 44 say?

Article 44, a Directive Principle, says the State shall endeavour to secure a uniform civil code for citizens throughout India.

Q2. What are the educational rights of minorities?

Under Article 30, religious and linguistic minorities have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice, and the State shall not discriminate against them in giving aid.

Q3. Explain the Constituent Assembly debate on citizenship.

• Partition background.
• Articles 5–11; birth vs descent.
• Civic, secular idea of citizenship; Citizenship Act 1955 and later amendments.

Q4. Explain the constitutional provisions for minorities and the debate behind them.

• Patel's Advisory Committee; rejection of separate electorates.
• Arts. 25–30.
• Arguments on both sides.

Q5. Discuss the debate on the Uniform Civil Code versus personal laws.

• Meaning and Article 44.
• Assembly debate: supporters and opponents.
• Court cases and present position.
• Arguments for and against; conclusion.

Exam tip

Quote Article 44 exactly and name at least two court cases; that lifts an average UCC answer.

Quick summary

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP), in Part IV (Articles 36–51), are guidelines for the government to build a welfare state. They are not enforceable by courts but are "fundamental in the governance of the country". Fundamental Duties, in Part IVA (Article 51A), were added in 1976 and list the duties of every citizen.

Key points

• DPSP were borrowed from the Constitution of Ireland.
• Article 37: DPSP are not enforceable by any court, but it is the duty of the state to apply them in making laws.
• Dr. Ambedkar called them a "novel feature" of the Constitution.
• Classification of DPSP:

1. Socialist principles: adequate means of livelihood (Art. 39a), equal pay for equal work for men and women (39d), prevent concentration of wealth (39c), right to work, education and public help (41), just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief (42), living wage (43), free legal aid (39A).
2. Gandhian principles: village panchayats (Art. 40), cottage industries (43), prohibition of intoxicating drinks (47), protection of cows and improvement of cattle breeds (48), promotion of interests of weaker sections, SCs and STs (46).
3. Liberal-intellectual principles: Uniform Civil Code (Art. 44), early childhood care and education (45), organising agriculture and animal husbandry on modern lines (48), protection of environment (48A), protection of monuments (49), separation of judiciary from executive (50), promotion of international peace (51).

• Amendments: the 42nd Amendment (1976) added Articles 39A, 43A, 48A; the 44th added 38(2); the 86th Amendment (2002) changed Article 45.
• DPSP vs Fundamental Rights: FRs are justiciable, negative (limit the state), aim at political democracy; DPSP are non-justiciable, positive (direct the state), aim at social and economic democracy.
• In the Minerva Mills case (1980), the Supreme Court said the Constitution rests on the balance between Part III and Part IV.
• Fundamental Duties were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee, inspired by the USSR constitution.
• Originally 10 duties; the 11th (parents to provide education to children aged 6–14) was added by the 86th Amendment (2002).
• Examples of duties: respect the Constitution, National Flag and National Anthem; cherish the ideals of the freedom struggle; protect sovereignty, unity and integrity; defend the country; promote harmony and renounce practices derogatory to women; preserve composite culture; protect the environment; develop scientific temper; safeguard public property; strive for excellence.
• Duties are also non-justiciable.

Important terms

• Non-justiciable – not enforceable in a court.
• Welfare state – state that works for the social and economic well-being of all.
• Uniform Civil Code – common civil laws for all citizens.
• Scientific temper – rational, questioning attitude.
• Gandhian principles – DPSP reflecting Gandhi's ideas.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why are DPSP called non-justiciable?

Because under Article 37 no person can go to court to enforce them. However, they are fundamental in governance and the state must apply them in making laws.

Q2. Name any four Fundamental Duties.

Respect the Constitution, Flag and Anthem; protect the sovereignty and integrity of India; protect the natural environment; develop scientific temper and humanism.

Q3. Classify the Directive Principles of State Policy.

• Socialist – Articles 38, 39, 41, 42, 43.
• Gandhian – Articles 40, 43, 46, 47, 48.
• Liberal-intellectual – Articles 44, 45, 48A, 49, 50, 51.
• Examples for each.

Q4. Distinguish between Fundamental Rights and DPSP.

• Justiciable vs non-justiciable.
• Negative vs positive obligations.
• Political vs socio-economic democracy.
• Individual welfare vs community welfare.
• Source: USA vs Ireland.
• Courts now try to harmonise both (Minerva Mills).

Q5. Write a note on Fundamental Duties.

• Added in 1976 (42nd Amendment).
• Swaran Singh Committee.
• Article 51A; 11 duties.
• List of main duties.
• Importance: reminds citizens; balances rights.
• Criticism: non-justiciable, vague words.

Exam tip

Learn at least two article numbers for each class of DPSP – it makes your classification answer authentic.

Quick summary

India has a parliamentary system. The President is the constitutional (nominal) head of state, and the Prime Minister with the Council of Ministers is the real executive. The President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister (Article 74). The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

Key points

• President (Articles 52–62): head of the Union executive; all executive actions are taken in his name (Art. 53).
• Qualifications: citizen of India, at least 35 years old, qualified to be a Lok Sabha member, not holding an office of profit.
• Election (Art. 54–55): indirect, by an electoral college of elected members of both Houses of Parliament and elected members of State Legislative Assemblies (including Delhi and Puducherry). System of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote, secret ballot.
• Term: 5 years; can be re-elected. Impeachment (Art. 61) for "violation of the Constitution" by a two-thirds majority of the total membership of each House.
• Powers:
• Executive: appoints PM, ministers, Governors, judges, CAG, Chief Election Commissioner, Attorney General.
• Legislative: summons and prorogues Parliament, dissolves Lok Sabha, addresses Parliament, assent to bills, issues ordinances (Art. 123), nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha.
• Financial: money bills introduced only with his recommendation; Contingency Fund.
• Judicial: pardoning power (Art. 72).
• Emergency: national (Art. 352), state/President's Rule (Art. 356), financial (Art. 360).
• Veto powers: absolute, suspensive (return the bill once) and pocket veto (keeping a bill pending; used by President Zail Singh in 1986 on the Postal Bill).
• 44th Amendment (1978): the President can send advice back once for reconsideration, but must accept it afterwards. The 42nd Amendment (1976) had made advice binding.
• Vice-President (Art. 63–71): ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha; elected by members of both Houses of Parliament.
• Prime Minister (Art. 75): appointed by the President; usually the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha.
• Functions of the PM: forms the Council of Ministers and allocates portfolios; chairs the Cabinet; link between President and Cabinet (Art. 78); leader of the Lok Sabha (if member); chief spokesman of government; leads foreign policy; head of NITI Aayog and the National Development Council.
• Council of Ministers: Cabinet ministers, Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers. 91st Amendment (2003) limits its size to 15% of the Lok Sabha's strength.
• Collective responsibility (Art. 75(3)): the Council of Ministers stays in office only as long as it has the confidence of the Lok Sabha.

Important terms

• Nominal executive – head with formal powers (President).
• Real executive – PM and Council of Ministers.
• Ordinance – temporary law made by the President when Parliament is not in session.
• Pocket veto – keeping a bill pending indefinitely.
• Collective responsibility – ministers sink or swim together.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. How is the President of India elected?

By an electoral college of elected MPs of both Houses and elected MLAs of the states (and Delhi, Puducherry), through proportional representation by single transferable vote and secret ballot.

Q2. What is an ordinance?

An ordinance is a temporary law issued by the President under Article 123 when Parliament is not in session. It must be approved by Parliament within six weeks of its reassembly.

Q3. Explain the powers of the President of India.

• Executive powers.
• Legislative powers and veto.
• Financial powers.
• Judicial – pardon.
• Emergency powers.
• Position: constitutional head acting on ministerial advice.

Q4. Describe the position and functions of the Prime Minister.

• Appointment and leadership of majority.
• Forms and leads Council of Ministers.
• Link between President and Cabinet.
• Leader of Parliament and party.
• Foreign policy and national leader.
• "Keystone of the Cabinet arch" (Morley's description of the British PM).

Q5. Discuss the relationship between the President and the Prime Minister.

• Article 74 – aid and advice.
• Article 78 – duty to inform President.
• President's discretion: appointing PM in hung House, returning advice once, pocket veto.
• Mostly cooperative; occasional tension.
• Real power with PM in normal times.

Exam tip

Mention specific Articles (52, 54, 61, 72, 74, 75, 123, 352, 356, 360) – they give your answer a solid, exam-ready look.

Quick summary

Part XVIII of the Constitution (Articles 352–360) gives the Union special powers to deal with extraordinary situations. There are three types of emergency: National Emergency (Art. 352), State Emergency or President's Rule (Art. 356) and Financial Emergency (Art. 360). During an emergency the federal system becomes almost unitary and some Fundamental Rights can be suspended. The 44th Amendment (1978) added safeguards after the misuse of the 1975 emergency.

Key points

National Emergency (Art. 352)

• Grounds: war, external aggression or armed rebellion (the 44th Amendment replaced "internal disturbance" with "armed rebellion").
• Proclaimed by the President only on the written advice of the Union Cabinet (44th Amendment).
• Must be approved by both Houses within one month by a special majority; continues for six months at a time with fresh approval.
• Lok Sabha can pass a resolution to revoke it by a simple majority.
• Effects: Parliament can make laws on State List subjects; the Centre can give directions to states; the life of Lok Sabha can be extended by one year at a time; Art. 358 suspends Art. 19 automatically (only in case of war or external aggression); Art. 359 lets the President suspend the enforcement of other Fundamental Rights, except Articles 20 and 21.
• Proclaimed three times: 1962 (China war), 1971 (war with Pakistan), 1975 (internal disturbance, 25 June 1975 – March 1977).

President's Rule (Art. 356)

• When the President is satisfied, on the Governor's report or otherwise, that the government of a state cannot be carried on according to the Constitution.
• Art. 365: failure to follow Union directions can also be a ground.
• Approval by both Houses within two months by a simple majority; lasts six months at a time, maximum three years (continuation beyond one year needs a national emergency and the Election Commission's certificate).
• Effects: the President takes over the state executive (run by the Governor); Parliament or the President legislates for the state; the High Court is not affected.
• It has been used over 100 times, often misused for political reasons.
• S. R. Bommai case (1994): President's Rule is subject to judicial review; majority must be tested on the floor of the house; secularism is part of the basic structure.
• The Sarkaria Commission (1988) advised using it only as a last resort.

Financial Emergency (Art. 360)

• When the financial stability or credit of India is threatened.
• Approval within two months; no maximum period.
• Effects: Union can direct states on financial matters; salaries of government servants and even judges can be reduced; money bills of states can be reserved for the President.
• Never declared so far.

Criticism: danger to federalism and rights; misuse in 1975. Defence: necessary to protect unity and security (Ambedkar hoped Art. 356 would remain a "dead letter").

Important terms

• Proclamation – formal announcement of emergency by the President.
• President's Rule – central rule in a state under Art. 356.
• Special majority – majority of total membership and two-thirds of those present and voting.
• Dead letter – a provision that is never used.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. On what grounds can a National Emergency be declared?

On the ground of war, external aggression or armed rebellion, actual or threatened, on the written advice of the Union Cabinet.

Q2. Which Fundamental Rights cannot be suspended during an emergency?

Article 20 (protection in respect of conviction for offences) and Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty).

Q3. Explain the provisions and effects of National Emergency.

• Grounds, procedure, approval, duration.
• Effects on federalism, Parliament and rights (Arts. 358–359).
• Instances; 44th Amendment safeguards.

Q4. Explain President's Rule and discuss its misuse.

• Art. 356 and 365; procedure and duration.
• Effects.
• Misuse; Sarkaria Commission; Bommai judgment.

Q5. Critically examine the emergency provisions of the Indian Constitution.

• Three types in brief.
• Justification.
• Criticism and safeguards.
• Conclusion.

Exam tip

Mention the S. R. Bommai case in every answer on Art. 356; it is the most asked judgment on this topic.

Quick summary

The Parliament of India (Articles 79–122) is the supreme law-making body of the Union. It consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha (Council of States, upper house) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People, lower house). Parliament makes laws, controls finance, keeps the executive accountable, and can amend the Constitution.

Key points

• Lok Sabha: members directly elected by the people on the basis of universal adult franchise.
• Maximum strength fixed by the Constitution (Article 81) is 550 elected members (530 from states and 20 from Union Territories); the present House has 543 elected seats. The provision for 2 nominated Anglo-Indian members was ended by the 104th Amendment (2019).
• Term: 5 years, unless dissolved earlier; can be extended by one year at a time during a national emergency.
• Qualification: citizen, at least 25 years.
• Presided over by the Speaker, elected by the members. The Speaker decides whether a bill is a Money Bill and presides over joint sittings.
• Rajya Sabha: maximum 250 members – 238 elected by state and UT legislative assemblies (by proportional representation, single transferable vote) and 12 nominated by the President for literature, science, art and social service.
• It is a permanent house; it is not dissolved. One-third of members retire every two years; term of a member is 6 years.
• Qualification: at least 30 years. The Vice-President is its ex-officio Chairman.
• Law-making: ordinary bills pass both Houses. A deadlock is settled by a joint sitting (Art. 108), presided over by the Speaker.
• Money Bill (Art. 110): can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha can only delay it for 14 days and make recommendations.
• Financial control: annual budget (Annual Financial Statement, Art. 112), demands for grants, Appropriation Bill, Finance Bill; Committees like the Public Accounts Committee and Estimates Committee.
• Control over the executive: Question Hour, Zero Hour, calling attention motion, adjournment motion, no-confidence motion (only in Lok Sabha), cut motions.
• Constituent power: amends the Constitution under Article 368.
• Electoral functions: takes part in electing the President and Vice-President.
• Judicial functions: impeachment of the President, removal of judges.
• Special powers of Rajya Sabha: Art. 249 (law on a State List subject in national interest) and Art. 312 (creating new All India Services).
• Sessions: Budget, Monsoon, Winter. Gap between two sessions cannot exceed six months (Art. 85).

Important terms

• Bicameral – legislature with two houses.
• Money Bill – bill dealing only with taxes, borrowing, Consolidated Fund etc.
• Joint sitting – meeting of both Houses to resolve deadlock on an ordinary bill.
• Question Hour – first hour of a sitting for questions.
• Zero Hour – time after Question Hour for urgent matters (an Indian practice, not in rules).
• Quorum – one-tenth of total members needed for a sitting.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is a Money Bill?

A Money Bill (Art. 110) deals only with taxes, government borrowing, the Consolidated Fund and similar matters. It can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha can delay it for at most 14 days.

Q2. What is a joint sitting?

When the two Houses disagree on an ordinary bill, the President may call a joint sitting under Article 108. It is presided over by the Speaker and the bill is decided by majority.

Q3. Describe the composition of the Lok Sabha.

• Maximum 550 elected members.
• Direct election by adult franchise.
• Reserved seats for SCs and STs.
• Term 5 years; can be dissolved.
• Qualification 25 years.
• Speaker and Deputy Speaker.

Q4. Explain the powers and functions of Parliament.

• Legislative.
• Financial.
• Control over executive.
• Constituent (Art. 368).
• Electoral.
• Judicial – impeachment, removal of judges.
• Deliberative – forum of national debate.

Q5. Compare the powers of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.

• Equal: ordinary bills (subject to joint sitting), amendments, election and impeachment of President.
• Lok Sabha superior: Money Bills, no-confidence, larger numbers in joint sitting.
• Rajya Sabha special: Art. 249, Art. 312.
• Rajya Sabha permanent; Lok Sabha dissolvable.

Exam tip

Show the difference between the two Houses in a small table – it saves time and scores well.

Quick summary

The Supreme Court of India (Articles 124–147) is the highest court of the country. It is the guardian of the Constitution and protector of Fundamental Rights. India has a single, integrated judicial system with the Supreme Court at the top. Through judicial review the Court can declare laws and government actions unconstitutional, and through judicial activism and PIL it has widened access to justice.

Key points

• The Supreme Court was inaugurated on 28 January 1950; it replaced the Federal Court (1937).
• Composition: the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other judges. Parliament fixes the number; it was 8 in 1950 and is now 34 (including the CJI) after the 2019 amendment of the law.
• Appointment: by the President. Since the "Judges cases" (1981, 1993, 1998), appointments follow the collegium system (CJI and four senior-most judges). The NJAC (99th Amendment, 2014) was struck down by the Court in 2015.
• Qualifications: citizen of India; and 5 years as a High Court judge, or 10 years as an advocate of a High Court, or a distinguished jurist in the President's opinion.
• Tenure: until 65 years of age.
• Removal: by the President after an address by each House of Parliament passed by a special majority, on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity (Art. 124(4)).
• Independence of judiciary: security of tenure, fixed salaries charged on the Consolidated Fund, conduct of judges cannot be discussed in Parliament except during removal, power to punish for contempt, ban on practice after retirement.
• Jurisdiction:

1. Original (Art. 131) – disputes between the Centre and states, or between states.
2. Writ jurisdiction (Art. 32) – enforcement of Fundamental Rights.
3. Appellate – appeals in constitutional, civil and criminal cases.
4. Advisory (Art. 143) – gives opinion to the President.
5. Court of record (Art. 129) – its judgments are records; can punish for contempt.

• Article 141: law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts in India.
• Judicial review: the power to examine whether laws and executive acts are consistent with the Constitution, and to declare them void if not. It comes from Articles 13, 32, 226 and 131–136. Originated in the USA (Marbury v. Madison, 1803).
• Basic structure doctrine: Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) – Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution but cannot destroy its basic structure.
• PIL (Public Interest Litigation): any public-spirited person can approach the court on behalf of those who cannot. Justices P. N. Bhagwati and V. R. Krishna Iyer pioneered it.
• Judicial activism: courts taking an active role in protecting rights and good governance (e.g. environmental cases, Vishaka guidelines 1997).
• Critics warn of judicial overreach into the domain of legislature and executive.

Important terms

• Judicial review – power of courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.
• Collegium – group of senior judges recommending appointments.
• PIL – litigation filed for public interest.
• Court of record – court whose decisions are permanent records.
• Basic structure – core of the Constitution that cannot be amended away.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?

Under Article 143, the President may ask the Supreme Court for its opinion on any question of law or fact of public importance. The opinion is not binding on the President.

Q2. What is Public Interest Litigation?

PIL allows any public-spirited person or group to approach the court for the protection of the rights of people who cannot approach it themselves, like the poor or prisoners. It was developed by Justices P. N. Bhagwati and V. R. Krishna Iyer.

Q3. Describe the composition of the Supreme Court and the appointment of judges.

• CJI + other judges (34 total).
• Appointed by the President.
• Collegium system.
• Qualifications.
• Tenure up to 65; removal by special majority.

Q4. Explain the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

• Original (Art. 131).
• Writ (Art. 32).
• Appellate.
• Advisory (Art. 143).
• Court of record (Art. 129).
• Power of judicial review.

Q5. What is judicial review? Explain its importance in India.

• Meaning and constitutional basis (Art. 13, 32, 226).
• US origin.
• Protects Fundamental Rights and federalism.
• Basic structure doctrine.
• Checks on legislature and executive.
• Limits: should avoid overreach.

Exam tip

Mention the Kesavananda Bharati case in every answer on judicial review – it is the single most important case.

Quick summary

A constitution must change with time. Article 368 gives Parliament the power to amend the Indian Constitution by three methods. But can Parliament change anything at all? After a long conflict between Parliament and the Supreme Court, the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) laid down the basic structure doctrine: Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution but cannot destroy its basic structure. This doctrine is now a central protection of Indian democracy.

Key points

Methods of amendment

• 1. Simple majority of Parliament (outside Art. 368): e.g. formation of new states and changes in boundaries (Arts. 2–4), citizenship rules, creation or abolition of Legislative Councils (Art. 169).
• 2. Special majority (Art. 368): majority of the total membership of each House and two-thirds of members present and voting. Most provisions, including Fundamental Rights and DPSP, are amended this way.
• 3. Special majority + ratification by at least half of the state legislatures: for federal provisions – election of the President, powers of the Union and states, the Supreme Court and High Courts, Seventh Schedule lists, representation of states in Parliament, and Art. 368 itself.
• The bill can start in either House; there is no joint sitting for amendment bills; the President must give assent (24th Amendment, 1971).
• The Indian method is a mix of rigid and flexible. By 2023, the Constitution had been amended 106 times.

Conflict over amending Fundamental Rights

• Shankari Prasad (1951) and Sajjan Singh (1965): Parliament can amend Fundamental Rights.
• Golaknath (1967): Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights.
• 24th Amendment (1971) restored Parliament's power.
• Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (24 April 1973): 13-judge bench, decided 7:6. Parliament can amend any part, including Fundamental Rights, but not the basic structure.
• Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975): free and fair elections are part of the basic structure.
• 42nd Amendment (1976) tried to make amending power unlimited; Minerva Mills (1980) struck that down – limited amending power and the balance between Fundamental Rights and DPSP are themselves basic features.
• I. R. Coelho (2007): laws put in the Ninth Schedule after 24 April 1973 can be reviewed if they violate the basic structure.
• NJAC case (2015): the 99th Amendment was struck down to protect judicial independence.

Elements of basic structure (as listed in various judgments): supremacy of the Constitution, sovereign democratic republic, secularism, federalism, separation of powers, judicial review, rule of law, independence of judiciary, free and fair elections, parliamentary system, essence of Fundamental Rights, welfare state.

Important amendments: 1st (1951) Ninth Schedule; 7th (1956) reorganisation of states; 42nd (1976) "mini-constitution"; 44th (1978); 52nd (1985) anti-defection; 61st (1988) voting age 18; 73rd and 74th (1992) local bodies; 86th (2002) Right to Education (Art. 21A); 101st (2016) GST; 103rd (2019) 10% EWS reservation; 106th (2023) women's reservation.

Important terms

• Amendment – formal change in the Constitution.
• Ratification – approval by state legislatures.
• Basic structure – core features that cannot be destroyed by amendment.
• Ninth Schedule – list of laws protected from challenge (added in 1951).

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the basic structure doctrine?

It is the rule laid down by the Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) that Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot alter or destroy its basic features.

Q2. Which provisions need ratification by states?

Federal provisions such as the election of the President, distribution of powers, the Supreme Court and High Courts, the Seventh Schedule, representation of states in Parliament and Article 368 itself.

Q3. Explain the procedure of amendment of the Indian Constitution.

• Art. 368; three methods with examples.
• Procedure in Parliament; President's assent.
• Rigid-flexible nature; criticism.

Q4. Explain the development of the basic structure doctrine.

• Shankari Prasad, Sajjan Singh, Golaknath.
• 24th Amendment; Kesavananda Bharati.
• Indira Gandhi, Minerva Mills, Coelho, NJAC.
• Elements of basic structure.

Q5. Write a note on important amendments to the Indian Constitution.

• 1st, 7th, 42nd, 44th, 52nd, 61st, 73rd–74th, 86th, 101st, 103rd, 106th.
• Their impact on democracy and federalism.

Exam tip

Write Kesavananda Bharati's date (24 April 1973) and bench (13 judges, 7:6); precise facts earn marks.

Quick summary

India is a federation – power is divided between the Union (Centre) and the States by the Constitution. But Indian federalism has a strong centre, so it is called "quasi-federal" (K. C. Wheare) or a "Union of States" (Article 1). Centre–State relations are divided into legislative, administrative and financial relations. Several commissions, like the Sarkaria and Punchhi Commissions, have suggested reforms.

Key points

• Article 1: "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States." Dr. Ambedkar explained that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement among states, and no state has the right to secede.
• Federal features: written constitution, division of powers, supremacy of the Constitution, rigid amendment for federal provisions, independent judiciary, bicameral legislature.
• Unitary features: strong centre, single constitution, single citizenship, appointment of Governors by the Centre, All India Services, integrated judiciary, emergency provisions, Parliament can change state boundaries (Art. 3), unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha.
• Legislative relations (Articles 245–255; Seventh Schedule):

1. Union List – originally 97 subjects (defence, foreign affairs, banking, currency, railways).
2. State List – originally 66 subjects (police, public order, public health, agriculture).
3. Concurrent List – originally 47 subjects (education, forests, marriage, criminal law).

• The 42nd Amendment (1976) moved education, forests and some others from the State to the Concurrent List.
• Residuary powers (subjects not in any list) lie with Parliament (Art. 248).
• In conflict on a Concurrent subject, Union law prevails (Art. 254).
• Parliament can legislate on State subjects: Art. 249 (Rajya Sabha resolution), Art. 250 (emergency), Art. 252 (request of two or more states), Art. 253 (to implement treaties).
• Administrative relations (Articles 256–263): states must comply with Union laws; the Centre can give directions; All India Services (IAS, IPS, IFoS); Inter-State Council (Art. 263).
• Financial relations (Articles 268–293): division of taxes; Finance Commission (Art. 280) every five years recommends sharing of taxes; grants-in-aid (Art. 275). The GST (101st Amendment, 2016) created the GST Council (Art. 279A).
• Areas of tension: misuse of Article 356 (President's Rule), role of Governors, financial dependence of states, deployment of central forces, river water disputes.
• S. R. Bommai case (1994): Supreme Court limited misuse of Article 356; majority must be tested on the floor of the House.
• Commissions: Administrative Reforms Commission (1966), Rajamannar Committee (Tamil Nadu, 1969), Anandpur Sahib Resolution (1973), Sarkaria Commission (1983–1988), Punchhi Commission (2007–2010).
• Cooperative federalism: Centre and states work together, e.g. NITI Aayog (2015), GST Council.

Important terms

• Federation – system where power is constitutionally divided between centre and units.
• Quasi-federal – federal with strong unitary features.
• Residuary powers – powers on subjects not listed.
• Cooperative federalism – partnership between centre and states.
• President's Rule – central rule in a state under Article 356.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What are residuary powers?

Residuary powers are powers over subjects not mentioned in any of the three lists. Under Article 248, they belong to Parliament.

Q2. Why is India called a quasi-federal state?

Because although power is divided between the Centre and states, the Centre is much stronger – with residuary powers, emergency powers, Governors appointed by it and single citizenship. K. C. Wheare used this term.

Q3. Describe the federal and unitary features of the Indian Constitution.

• Federal: written constitution, division of powers, independent judiciary, bicameralism, rigid amendment.
• Unitary: strong centre, single citizenship, Governors, emergency, All India Services, Article 3.
• Conclusion: federation with a unitary bias.

Q4. Explain the legislative relations between the Centre and the states.

• Seventh Schedule: three lists.
• Residuary powers with Parliament.
• Union law prevails in conflict.
• Parliament's power on State List (Art. 249–253).
• Reservation of state bills for President.

Q5. Discuss the areas of tension in Centre–State relations.

• Article 356 misuse; Bommai case.
• Role of Governors.
• Financial dependence; tax sharing.
• Central forces and agencies.
• River water and border disputes.
• Remedies: Sarkaria, Punchhi recommendations; cooperative federalism.

Exam tip

Quote "Union of States" (Article 1) and K. C. Wheare's "quasi-federal" in your introduction – a strong opening.

Quick summary

Each state in India has a government similar to the Union. The Governor is the constitutional head; the Chief Minister with the Council of Ministers is the real executive; the State Legislature makes laws; and the High Court heads the state judiciary. These provisions are in Part VI (Articles 152–237) of the Constitution. Maharashtra has a bicameral legislature with its capital at Mumbai and the winter session held at Nagpur.

Key points

• Governor (Articles 153–162): appointed by the President; holds office "during the pleasure of the President", normally for 5 years. Qualifications: citizen, at least 35 years.
• One person can be Governor of two or more states (7th Amendment, 1956).
• Powers of the Governor: appoints the Chief Minister and, on his advice, other ministers; appoints the Advocate General and State Election Commissioner; summons and prorogues the legislature, dissolves the Legislative Assembly; gives assent to bills or reserves bills for the President (Art. 200); issues ordinances (Art. 213); pardoning power (Art. 161); reports to the President on breakdown of constitutional machinery (Art. 356).
• Discretionary powers: reserving bills, recommending President's Rule, choosing a CM when no party has a majority. Use of discretion is often criticised.
• Chief Minister (Art. 164): appointed by the Governor; usually the leader of the majority in the Vidhan Sabha. Heads the Council of Ministers, advises the Governor, leads the government and party, link between Governor and Council (Art. 167).
• Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly. Size limited to 15% of the Assembly (91st Amendment), minimum 12.
• State Legislature (Art. 168): unicameral in most states. Bicameral states have a Legislative Council too. Maharashtra is bicameral: Vidhan Sabha (288 members) and Vidhan Parishad.
• Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha): directly elected, maximum 500 and minimum 60 members (Art. 170), term 5 years, qualification 25 years, presided over by the Speaker.
• Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad): size not more than one-third of the Assembly and not less than 40 (Art. 171). Members elected by MLAs, local bodies, graduates, teachers, and some nominated by the Governor. Permanent house; one-third retire every two years.
• Parliament can create or abolish a Council on a resolution of the Assembly (Art. 169).
• High Court (Art. 214–231): judges appointed by the President; retire at 62; issue writs under Article 226 (wider than Art. 32). The Bombay High Court has benches at Nagpur, Aurangabad (Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar) and Panaji (Goa).

Important terms

• Governor – constitutional head of a state.
• Discretionary power – power used by own judgment, without ministerial advice.
• Bicameral legislature – two houses (Assembly and Council).
• Advocate General – chief law officer of the state.
• Reservation of bills – Governor sending a state bill for the President's consideration.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. How is the Governor appointed?

The Governor is appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal. He holds office during the pleasure of the President, usually for five years.

Q2. Name the two houses of the Maharashtra Legislature.

The Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha), with 288 elected members, and the Maharashtra Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad).

Q3. Explain the powers and position of the Governor.

• Executive, legislative, financial, judicial powers.
• Ordinances, assent and reservation of bills.
• Discretionary powers.
• Report under Art. 356.
• Position: constitutional head; agent of Centre in some respects.
• Controversies over discretion.

Q4. Describe the powers and functions of the Chief Minister.

• Formation of Council of Ministers.
• Allocation of portfolios.
• Chairs cabinet meetings.
• Advises Governor; Art. 167 duties.
• Leader of Assembly and party.
• Represents state in Inter-State Council, NITI Aayog.

Q5. Describe the composition and functions of the State Legislature.

• Unicameral / bicameral; Maharashtra example.
• Vidhan Sabha composition and term.
• Vidhan Parishad composition.
• Law-making on State and Concurrent Lists.
• Financial control – state budget.
• Control over ministry – no-confidence, questions.

Exam tip

Use Maharashtra examples (288 seats, Nagpur winter session, Bombay High Court benches) – it shows local awareness that RTMNU examiners value.

Quick summary

Local self-government (स्थानिक स्वराज्य संस्था) means the management of local affairs by bodies elected by local people. Rural local bodies are called Panchayati Raj Institutions; urban ones are municipal bodies. The 73rd Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj and the 74th Amendment (1992) to urban local bodies. Maharashtra was one of the early states to adopt Panchayati Raj in 1962.

Key points

• Article 40 (DPSP) asks the state to organise village panchayats.
• Lord Ripon's Resolution (1882) is called the "Magna Carta of local self-government" in India.
• Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) recommended a three-tier Panchayati Raj: village, block and district levels.
• Rajasthan was the first state to adopt it, at Nagaur on 2 October 1959; Andhra Pradesh followed.
• Maharashtra: on the recommendation of the Vasantrao Naik Committee, the Maharashtra Zilla Parishads and Panchayat Samitis Act, 1961 was passed, and Panchayati Raj began on 1 May 1962.
• Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) suggested a two-tier system.
• 73rd Amendment (1992), in force from 24 April 1993 (National Panchayati Raj Day): added Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects).
• Main provisions of the 73rd Amendment: Gram Sabha; three tiers (village, intermediate, district) in states with population over 20 lakh; direct elections; term of 5 years; reservation for SCs and STs in proportion to population; at least one-third seats for women (Maharashtra provides 50%); State Election Commission (Art. 243K); State Finance Commission every 5 years (Art. 243I).
• Three tiers in Maharashtra:

1. Gram Panchayat – village; headed by the Sarpanch; its secretary is the Gram Sevak (Gram Panchayat secretary appointed by the Zilla Parishad).
2. Panchayat Samiti – block (taluka); headed by the Sabhapati; administrator is the Block Development Officer (BDO).
3. Zilla Parishad – district; headed by the Adhyaksha (President); administrator is the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), an IAS officer.

• Gram Sabha: all adult voters of the village; it approves plans and reviews the panchayat's work.
• 74th Amendment (1992): added Part IXA and the Twelfth Schedule (18 subjects). Three types of urban bodies: Nagar Panchayat (area in transition), Municipal Council (smaller urban area), Municipal Corporation (larger urban area, headed by a Mayor; administration by the Municipal Commissioner).
• PESA Act 1996 extended panchayats to Scheduled Areas.
• Problems: lack of funds, interference by officials and state government, low awareness, proxy representation of women ("sarpanch-pati"), caste politics.

Important terms

• Panchayati Raj – system of rural local government.
• Gram Sabha – assembly of all voters of a village.
• Sarpanch – head of the Gram Panchayat.
• Zilla Parishad – district-level body.
• Municipal Corporation – local body for a big city.
• Decentralisation – transfer of power to lower levels.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the Gram Sabha?

The Gram Sabha is the body of all adult voters registered in a village panchayat area. It discusses and approves village plans and checks the panchayat's work.

Q2. Who is the CEO of a Zilla Parishad?

The Chief Executive Officer is an IAS officer appointed by the state government. He is the administrative head of the Zilla Parishad and carries out its decisions.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.

• Part IX, Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects).
• Gram Sabha; three tiers.
• Direct elections; 5-year term.
• Reservations for SC, ST, women (one-third minimum).
• State Election Commission; State Finance Commission.

Q4. Describe the structure of Panchayati Raj in Maharashtra.

• Gram Panchayat – Sarpanch, Gram Sevak.
• Panchayat Samiti – Sabhapati, BDO.
• Zilla Parishad – Adhyaksha, CEO; subject committees.
• Vasantrao Naik Committee; 1961 Act; 1 May 1962.
• 50% reservation for women.

Q5. Discuss the problems of local self-government in India.

• Inadequate finances.
• Bureaucratic and political interference.
• Lack of training and awareness.
• Proxy women representatives.
• Caste and factional politics.
• Remedies: devolution of funds, functions, functionaries.

Exam tip

For Maharashtra papers, always name the Vasantrao Naik Committee and 1 May 1962 – most students forget the state angle.

Quick summary

Free and fair elections are the heart of democracy. Article 324 creates the Election Commission of India (ECI), an independent constitutional body that conducts elections to Parliament, state legislatures and the offices of President and Vice-President. Over the years many electoral reforms have been made – EVMs, voter ID cards, disclosure of candidates' records, NOTA – but problems like money power, criminalisation and misuse of media remain.

Key points

Election Commission

• Set up on 25 January 1950 (celebrated as National Voters' Day since 2011). First Chief Election Commissioner: Sukumar Sen; first general elections 1951–52.
• Composition: Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners; a three-member commission since 1993.
• Appointment: by the President. The 2023 Act (Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act) provides a selection committee of the Prime Minister, the Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha and a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the PM.
• Term: six years or up to age 65. The CEC can be removed only like a Supreme Court judge; other commissioners only on the CEC's recommendation.
• Functions: preparing and revising electoral rolls; announcing election schedules; recognising political parties and allotting symbols; enforcing the Model Code of Conduct; scrutiny of nominations; supervising polling and counting; monitoring election expenditure; advising the President/Governor on disqualification of members.
• State elections to panchayats and municipalities are held by State Election Commissions (Art. 243K, 243ZA), not by the ECI.
• T. N. Seshan (CEC 1990–96) made the Model Code of Conduct strictly effective.

Electoral reforms

• 61st Amendment (1988): voting age 18.
• Anti-defection law (52nd Amendment, 1985; Tenth Schedule; tightened by the 91st Amendment, 2003).
• EPIC (voter ID cards) from 1993; EVMs used in all constituencies from the 2004 Lok Sabha election; VVPAT slips added later.
• ADR case (2002): candidates must disclose criminal records, assets and education.
• Lily Thomas (2013): MPs/MLAs convicted with two or more years' sentence are disqualified at once.
• NOTA (None of the Above) from 2013 (PUCL case).
• Electoral bonds scheme (2018) was struck down by the Supreme Court in February 2024.
• Committees: Tarkunde (1975), Dinesh Goswami (1990), Indrajit Gupta (1998, state funding), Law Commission reports.

Problems and suggestions: money and muscle power, criminal candidates, paid news and fake news, caste and religion appeals, low intra-party democracy. Suggestions: state funding, stronger EC powers, decriminalisation, transparency in party funds, "one nation, one election" debate.

Important terms

• Model Code of Conduct – guidelines for parties and candidates during elections (not a law).
• EVM – Electronic Voting Machine.
• VVPAT – Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail.
• NOTA – option to reject all candidates.
• Delimitation – fixing constituency boundaries (done by a separate Delimitation Commission).

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Which article provides for the Election Commission?

Article 324 of the Constitution vests the superintendence, direction and control of elections in the Election Commission.

Q2. What is NOTA?

NOTA means "None of the Above". Introduced in 2013 after a Supreme Court judgment, it lets a voter reject all candidates on the EVM.

Q3. Explain the composition and functions of the Election Commission.

• Art. 324; composition; appointment (2023 Act); term and removal.
• Functions: rolls, schedule, parties and symbols, MCC, polling, expenditure.
• Role of T. N. Seshan; independence.

Q4. Explain the major electoral reforms in India.

• Voting age, anti-defection law, EPIC, EVM–VVPAT.
• Court-led reforms: ADR, Lily Thomas, NOTA, electoral bonds.
• Committees.

Q5. Discuss the problems of the Indian electoral system and suggest remedies.

• Money power, criminalisation, caste/religion, fake news, defections.
• Remedies: state funding, transparency, EC powers, voter awareness.

Exam tip

Separate "reforms by law" and "reforms by courts" in your answer; it looks organised and shows depth.

Quick summary

Political parties link the people with the government. India has a multi-party system with national parties and many regional (state) parties. The party system has changed from Congress dominance (1952–67) to multi-party competition, then the coalition era (1989–2014) and later the rise of the BJP as the dominant party. Regional parties grew because of language, regional identity, caste and federal demands, and they now play a big role in national politics.

Key points

• Political party: an organised group of people with common principles who try to win power through elections (Edmund Burke: "a body of men united for promoting the national interest on some particular principle").
• Functions: contest elections, make policies and manifestos, form governments or act as opposition, shape public opinion, recruit leaders, link people and government.
• Recognition by the Election Commission under the Election Symbols Order, 1968. A national party must meet one of these: 6% votes in four or more states plus 4 Lok Sabha seats; or 2% of Lok Sabha seats from at least three states; or recognition as a state party in four states.
• After the ECI review of April 2023 there were six national parties: BJP, INC, CPI(M), BSP, AAP and NPP (check the current list).
• Indian National Congress: founded 1885; led the freedom movement; ideology of secularism, democratic socialism and later economic liberalisation; dominant until 1967 and again in 1971, 1980, 1984, 1991 and 2004–14 (UPA).
• Bharatiya Janata Party: founded on 6 April 1980 from the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951) tradition; ideology of cultural nationalism, Hindutva and integral humanism; led NDA governments (1998–2004, and from 2014).
• Left parties: CPI (1925), CPI(M) (1964 split) – strong in Kerala, West Bengal, Tripura at different times.
• One-party dominance – the "Congress system" (Rajni Kothari), 1952–67.
• 1967 – Congress lost power in several states; coalition and regional governments.
• 1977 – Janata Party, first non-Congress government at the Centre.
• 1989–2014 – coalition era (National Front, United Front, NDA, UPA).
• 2014 onward – BJP-led dominance with allies.
• Phases of the party system:
• Regional parties: DMK and AIADMK (Tamil Nadu), Shiv Sena and NCP (Maharashtra), TDP and YSRCP (Andhra Pradesh), BJD (Odisha), TMC (West Bengal), Akali Dal (Punjab), SP and BSP (Uttar Pradesh), RJD and JD(U) (Bihar), National Conference (J&K).
• Reasons for growth of regional parties: linguistic and cultural identity, regional imbalance in development, decline of Congress, caste mobilisation, personality of leaders, demand for more state autonomy.
• Role: give voice to regions, strengthen federalism, key partners in coalitions. Criticism: narrow interests, dynastic politics, instability.
• Problems of parties: lack of internal democracy, dynasty, money power, criminalisation, defections (controlled by the Tenth Schedule).

Important terms

• Party system – the pattern of competition among parties.
• One-party dominance – one party wins repeatedly while others exist.
• Coalition government – government formed by two or more parties.
• Regional party – a party with influence mainly in one state or region.
• Defection – a legislator changing party after election.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What are the conditions for recognition as a national party?

6% votes in four or more states and 4 Lok Sabha seats; or 2% of Lok Sabha seats from at least three states; or recognition as a state party in four states.

Q2. What is meant by the "Congress system"?

Rajni Kothari's term for one-party dominance in 1952–67, when the Congress was a broad umbrella party and competition happened mostly within it.

Q3. Explain the features of the Indian party system.

• Multi-party system; national and regional parties.
• Phases from dominance to coalitions.
• Role of ideology, caste and leaders.
• Problems.

Q4. Compare the organisation and ideology of the Congress and the BJP.

• Origin and growth.
• Ideology and support base.
• Organisation; performance in elections.

Q5. Explain the reasons for the growth of regional parties and their role in Indian politics.

• Causes: language, identity, imbalance, caste, autonomy.
• Examples from Maharashtra and other states.
• Positive and negative role; success and failure.

Exam tip

Give examples of regional parties from Maharashtra (Shiv Sena, NCP) when writing for RTMNU or SPPU papers.

Quick summary

The Right to Information Act, 2005 gives every citizen the legal right to ask for information held by public authorities. It aims to make government transparent and accountable and to reduce corruption. Citizens apply to a Public Information Officer, who must reply within 30 days. Appeals go to a senior officer and then to the Central or State Information Commission. The right to know is part of freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(a).

Key points

• Background: the Supreme Court held that the right to know is part of Art. 19(1)(a) (State of U.P. v. Raj Narain, 1975; S. P. Gupta, 1981).
• People's movement: Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan, led by Aruna Roy, demanded access to records of public works in the 1990s.
• State laws came first: Tamil Nadu and Goa (1997), Maharashtra (2002–03), and others. Anna Hazare's campaign was important in Maharashtra. The Freedom of Information Act, 2002 at the Centre was never brought into force.
• RTI Act passed in June 2005; fully in force from 12 October 2005. It does not apply to Jammu and Kashmir originally (it now applies after 2019 changes).
• Information includes records, documents, emails, opinions, files, samples, data in electronic form.
• Public authorities: bodies set up by the Constitution or law, and bodies owned, controlled or substantially financed by government.
• Procedure: written or electronic application to the Public Information Officer (PIO) with a fee (Rs 10 for the Centre; free for BPL applicants); no need to give reasons.
• Time limit: 30 days; 48 hours if it concerns the life or liberty of a person.
• First appeal: to a senior officer within 30 days. Second appeal: to the Central/State Information Commission within 90 days.
• Penalty on the PIO for delay or refusal without reason: Rs 250 per day, up to Rs 25,000.
• Section 4: proactive disclosure – authorities must publish basic information themselves.
• Section 8: exemptions – national security and sovereignty, foreign relations, cabinet papers (until decision), trade secrets, personal information unrelated to public interest, information that would endanger life, etc.
• Section 24: intelligence and security organisations are exempt, except for information on corruption and human rights violations.
• Information Commissions: Chief Information Commissioner and up to 10 Information Commissioners at the Centre and in each state. The RTI (Amendment) Act, 2019 let the Central Government decide their term and salary.
• Importance: transparency, accountability, less corruption, empowerment of citizens, better delivery of schemes (ration, pensions, roads).
• Problems: delays and pending appeals, vacant posts in commissions, low awareness in villages, attacks on RTI activists, misuse by some applicants, weakening amendments.

Important terms

• Public Information Officer (PIO) – officer who gives information under the Act.
• Proactive disclosure – publishing information without being asked.
• Information Commission – appellate body under the Act.
• Transparency – openness in government work.
• Accountability – being answerable for actions.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Within how many days must information be given under the RTI Act?

Within 30 days of the application; within 48 hours if the information concerns the life or liberty of a person.

Q2. What is proactive disclosure?

Under Section 4, public authorities must publish important information about their working, officers, budgets and decisions on their own, without waiting for applications.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the Right to Information Act, 2005.

• Background and aim.
• Definitions: information, public authority.
• Procedure, time limits, appeals, penalties.
• Exemptions (Sections 8 and 24).

Q4. Explain the composition and functions of the Information Commissions.

• Central and State Information Commissions.
• Appointment, term (2019 amendment).
• Powers: hear appeals and complaints, impose penalties, order disclosure.

Q5. Evaluate the role of RTI in strengthening democracy.

• Transparency, accountability, anti-corruption, participation.
• Examples of social audits.
• Problems and suggestions.

Exam tip

Mention Maharashtra's own RTI law and Anna Hazare's movement; it adds a local touch valued in Maharashtra universities.

Quick summary

Indian democracy works in a society divided by caste, religion, language and region. Caste and religion strongly influence voting, party formation and policy, and terrorism threatens national security and social harmony. RTMNU's Indian Government and Politics paper lists "caste, religion and terrorism" as major issues. Understanding them helps us see both the strengths and the challenges of Indian democracy.

Key points

Caste and politics

• Caste is a hereditary social group with fixed status, occupation and marriage rules.
• Rajni Kothari (Caste in Indian Politics, 1970): politics has "politicised caste" and caste has been "politicised"; caste associations became political pressure groups.
• M. N. Srinivas: concept of the dominant caste (numerical strength, land, education, political power) – e.g. Marathas in Maharashtra, Jats, Yadavs, Lingayats.
• Role of caste: in selection of candidates, voting behaviour, formation of parties (BSP, many regional parties), ministry formation, pressure for reservation.
• Reservation (affirmative action): for SCs and STs in legislatures, jobs and education; Mandal Commission (1980 report, implemented 1990) – 27% reservation for OBCs; Indra Sawhney case (1992): 50% ceiling and "creamy layer"; 103rd Amendment (2019) – 10% for economically weaker sections.
• Positive: political participation and empowerment of backward groups. Negative: casteism, vote-bank politics, conflicts, merit debates.

Religion and politics

• India is a secular state: no state religion, equal respect for all religions, freedom of religion (Arts. 25–28). "Secular" was added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976).
• Communalism: using religious identity for political ends and treating other communities as opponents. Causes: colonial divide-and-rule, Partition memories, vote-bank politics, economic competition, rumours and social media.
• Major incidents: Partition riots (1947), anti-Sikh riots (1984), Babri Masjid demolition (1992) and riots (1992–93), Gujarat riots (2002). The Supreme Court decided the Ayodhya title dispute in 2019.
• S. R. Bommai (1994): secularism is part of the basic structure.
• Remedies: secular education, strict law and order, quick justice, responsible media, dialogue, development.

Terrorism

• Use of violence or threat of violence against civilians to spread fear for political, religious or ideological aims.
• Types in India: cross-border terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir; insurgency in parts of the North-East; Left-Wing Extremism (Naxalism) in central India, including Gadchiroli in Maharashtra; urban terror attacks – Mumbai serial blasts (1993), Parliament attack (2001), 26/11 Mumbai attack (2008), Pulwama (2019).
• Causes: foreign support, religious extremism, poverty and unemployment, alienation, poor governance in remote areas.
• Laws and agencies: Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA, 1967, amended), National Investigation Agency (NIA, 2009), NSG, earlier TADA and POTA (repealed).
• Remedies: strong intelligence, border management, development of backward areas, deradicalisation, international co-operation, protection of human rights.

Important terms

• Casteism – putting caste loyalty above public interest.
• Dominant caste – a caste with numbers, land and power in a region.
• Communalism – political use of religious identity.
• Secularism – equal respect for all religions and no state religion.
• Terrorism – violence against civilians to create fear for political aims.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by dominant caste?

A term given by M. N. Srinivas for a caste that is strong in a region because of its numbers, land ownership, education and political power, such as the Marathas in Maharashtra.

Q2. What is communalism?

Communalism is the belief that people of one religion form a separate group with interests opposed to other religions, and the use of this identity for political gain.

Q3. Explain the role of caste in Indian politics.

• Meaning of caste; Kothari and Srinivas.
• Role in elections, parties, government, pressure groups.
• Reservation policy and Mandal.
• Merits and demerits; conclusion.

Q4. Discuss the problem of communalism in India and suggest remedies.

• Meaning and causes.
• Major incidents.
• Constitutional secularism and Bommai.
• Remedies.

Q5. Explain the causes of terrorism in India and the measures to counter it.

• Meaning and types (J&K, North-East, Naxalism, urban attacks).
• Causes.
• Laws and agencies.
• Suggestions.

Exam tip

Use a Maharashtra example in each part: Marathas (dominant caste), 1992–93 Mumbai riots, Gadchiroli Naxalism and 26/11.