समाजशास्त्र Sociology

Quick summary

India is a land of great diversity — of race, religion, language, caste, culture and geography. Yet there is a deep underlying unity that has held Indian society together for centuries. This topic explains the forms of diversity, the bonds of unity, and the threats to national integration.

Key points

• Diversity means collective differences among people — differences of race, religion, language, region and culture.
• Geographical – Himalayas, plains, deserts, plateaus, coasts; very different climates.
• Racial – B.S. Guha (1930s) classified Indian people into six main racial types.
• Linguistic – the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution lists 22 languages (Marathi is one of them); hundreds of mother tongues are spoken.
• Religious – Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and tribal faiths.
• Caste – thousands of castes and sub-castes.
• Cultural – different food, dress, festivals, art and customs.
• Forms of diversity in India:
• Geographical unity – natural boundaries; the idea of Bharatvarsha.
• Religious unity – pilgrimage centres in all four directions (Char Dham), shared rituals, Bhakti and Sufi movements.
• Cultural unity – epics Ramayana and Mahabharata known everywhere; common festivals.
• Political unity – one Constitution, one citizenship, democracy, national symbols.
• Linguistic links – Sanskrit tradition, Hindi and English as link languages.
• Economic interdependence – national market, railways, planning.
• Bases of unity:
• Unity in diversity means many differences existing together inside one common identity, like a garland of different flowers.
• Threats to national integration: communalism, casteism, regionalism, linguism, terrorism, economic inequality, insurgency.
• Measures: secular education, equal development of regions, strict laws against communal violence, role of media, cultural exchange, the National Integration Council (set up in 1961).

Important terms

• Diversity (विविधता) – collective differences among people.
• National integration – a feeling of oneness among citizens despite differences.
• Communalism – using religion to create hostility between communities.
• Regionalism – placing loyalty to a region above loyalty to the nation.
• Secularism – the state treats all religions equally and has no state religion.
• Pluralism – many cultures living together with mutual respect.

Important thinkers and theories

• Herbert Risley and B.S. Guha – classifications of Indian racial types.
• Jawaharlal Nehru – The Discovery of India, idea of India as a palimpsest with layers of culture.
• Rabindranath Tagore – India as a meeting place of many peoples.
• Article 25–28 of the Constitution – freedom of religion; the word "secular" added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976).

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by unity in diversity?

It means that people of different races, religions, languages and cultures live together with a shared sense of belonging to one nation. Differences exist, but a common identity binds them.

Q2. How many languages are in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution?

The Eighth Schedule lists 22 languages, including Marathi, Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and others.

Q3. Explain the forms of diversity in Indian society.

• Geographical diversity.
• Racial diversity (Guha's classification).
• Linguistic diversity.
• Religious diversity.
• Caste and cultural diversity.
• Give examples from Maharashtra (Marathi, Gondi, Warli; festivals).

Q4. Explain the bonds of unity in India.

• Geographical, religious, cultural, political, linguistic, economic unity.
• Role of pilgrimage, epics, festivals.
• Constitution and democracy.
• Freedom movement as a unifying force.

Q5. What are the threats to national integration? Suggest measures.

• Communalism, casteism, regionalism, linguism.
• Terrorism and insurgency.
• Economic inequality.
• Measures: education, balanced development, laws, media, political will, cultural programmes.

Exam tip

Write diversity and unity under clear sub-headings. A short Maharashtra example in each part makes your answer stand out.

Quick summary

Traditional Indian society was organised around a set of religious-philosophical ideas: Varna (division of society), Ashrama (stages of life), Purushartha (goals of life) and the doctrine of Karma and rebirth. Together with Dharma, they gave meaning and order to individual and social life. This topic explains each base and how they have changed today.

Key points

• Dharma – the moral duty and right conduct suited to one's position and stage of life. It was the binding principle of all other bases.
• Varna system – the four-fold division of society mentioned in the Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda: Brahmin (learning, priesthood), Kshatriya (rule, protection), Vaishya (trade, agriculture), Shudra (service). In theory it was based on qualities and work (guna and karma); later it became hereditary and merged with jati.
• Ashrama system – life (ideal span 100 years) divided into four stages of about 25 years each: Brahmacharya (student life, celibacy, learning), Grihastha (householder – marriage, family, earning; considered the most important as it supports the others), Vanaprastha (gradual withdrawal, guidance to others), Sannyasa (renunciation, pursuit of moksha).
• Purushartha – four aims of human life: Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth and material means), Kama (desire, pleasure, emotional and family life), Moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death). Artha and Kama were to be pursued within the limits of Dharma.
• The Ashramas and Purusharthas are linked: Brahmacharya prepares for Dharma, Grihastha fulfils Artha and Kama, and Vanaprastha–Sannyasa lead towards Moksha.
• Karma and rebirth – every action has its result; present life is the result of past actions, and present actions decide the future birth. This idea encouraged acceptance of one's duties, but also justified inequality of caste.
• Sanskaras – rites of passage (traditionally sixteen) from birth to death, such as namakarana, upanayana, vivaha and antyeshti, which marked the stages of life.
• Sociological view: these ideas created a stable, integrated and duty-centred social order, but also hierarchy, rigidity and the subordination of Shudras and women. Thinkers like P. H. Prabhu (Hindu Social Organisation, 1940) and K. M. Kapadia studied these bases.
• Present position: the Ashrama scheme is followed only symbolically; varna has no legal place (Constitution gives equality); values of duty, family and spirituality still influence people.

Important terms

• Varna – one of the four broad orders of traditional Hindu society.
• Ashrama – stage of life with its own duties.
• Purushartha – goal of human life.
• Karma – the principle that actions have consequences in this or the next life.
• Moksha – final liberation, the highest goal of life.

Important thinkers and theories

• P. H. Prabhu – Hindu Social Organisation; psychological and social meaning of Ashrama and Purushartha.
• K. M. Kapadia – Marriage and Family in India; Hindu marriage as a sacrament.
• G. S. Ghurye – difference between varna and jati.

5 important questions

Q1. Name the four Purusharthas.

Dharma (righteous duty), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire and pleasure) and Moksha (liberation).

Q2. Why is Grihastha Ashrama considered the most important?

Because the householder earns, raises a family and supports the people of the other three Ashramas (students, the old and ascetics); he also fulfils Artha and Kama within Dharma.

Q3. Explain the Ashrama system and its social significance.

• Meaning and four stages with duties.
• Link with Purusharthas.
• Significance: planned life, balance of worldly and spiritual aims, social order.
• Present relevance and decline.

Q4. Discuss the Varna system and its differences from caste (jati).

• Origin (Purusha Sukta), four varnas and duties.
• Basis: guna and karma in theory.
• Varna vs jati: four vs thousands, theory vs actual group, all-India vs local.
• Effects and present position.

Q5. Explain the doctrine of Karma and its influence on Indian society.

• Meaning; link with rebirth and Dharma.
• Positive effects: moral discipline, sense of duty.
• Negative effects: fatalism, justification of inequality.
• Changes due to education and modern values.

Exam tip

A neat table linking the four Ashramas with their main Purushartha helps you write a strong, quick answer.

Quick summary

Caste is a hereditary and endogamous group, usually linked with a traditional occupation, ranked in a hierarchy based on ideas of purity and pollution. It is the most distinctive feature of traditional Indian society. This topic covers definitions, features, theories of origin, the jajmani system, and changes in caste today.

Key points

• The word caste comes from the Portuguese casta, meaning race or breed. The Indian terms are varna and jati.
• Varna – four orders: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. Jati – the actual local caste groups, numbering in thousands.
• Herbert Risley – a collection of families bearing a common name, claiming descent from a common ancestor, following the same hereditary occupation.
• Ketkar (S.V. Ketkar) – a social group with membership by birth and a strict rule against marrying outside it.
• Definitions:
• Segmental division of society.
• Hierarchy.
• Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse.
• Civil and religious disabilities and privileges.
• Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation.
• Restrictions on marriage (endogamy).
• G.S. Ghurye's six features of caste (Caste and Race in India, 1932):
• Theories of origin: traditional (divine) theory from the Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda; racial theory (Risley); occupational theory (Nesfield); political theory (Abbe Dubois – Brahmins' creation); religious theory; Hutton's mana theory. No single theory is fully accepted.
• Jajmani system – traditional exchange of services between castes in villages; patron families (jajman) received services from service castes (kamin) and paid in kind. Studied by W.H. Wiser (1936).
• Louis Dumont (Homo Hierarchicus, 1966): purity and pollution is the core principle of caste.
• Changes in caste: weakening of commensal restrictions and occupational rules, inter-caste marriages, Sanskritization, role of caste in politics (vote banks), caste associations, reservation and constitutional safeguards.
• Constitution: Article 15 bans discrimination; Article 17 abolishes untouchability; Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955 (renamed Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1976); SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.

Important terms

• Caste (जात) – hereditary, endogamous status group.
• Endogamy – marriage within one's own caste.
• Commensality – rules about with whom one may eat.
• Dominant caste – a caste with numerical strength, land and political power in a village (M.N. Srinivas).
• Sanskritization – lower castes adopting customs of higher castes to rise in status (Srinivas).
• Casteism – loyalty to one's caste above wider interests.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is the jajmani system?

It is the traditional village system in which service castes (kamins) provided services like pottery, carpentry and barbering to landowning families (jajmans) and received grain and goods in return.

Q2. Distinguish between varna and jati.

Varna is the fourfold all-India scriptural division of society. Jati is the actual local endogamous caste group; there are thousands of jatis.

Q3. Explain Ghurye's features of the caste system.

• Segmental division.
• Hierarchy.
• Restrictions on food and social intercourse.
• Civil and religious disabilities.
• Hereditary occupation.
• Endogamy.
• Brief example for each.

Q4. Discuss the theories of the origin of caste.

• Traditional/divine theory.
• Racial theory.
• Occupational theory.
• Political (Brahminical) theory.
• Evaluation: caste arose from many factors over a long time.

Q5. Explain the changes in the caste system in modern India.

• Causes: industrialisation, urbanisation, education, democracy, law, reform movements.
• Changes: occupation, commensality, marriage, untouchability.
• Continuity: endogamy, caste in politics.
• Constitutional measures and reservation.

Exam tip

Ghurye's six features are the most asked question on caste — learn them in order and give one example each.

Quick summary

Tribes are groups of people with a common name, territory, dialect and culture, who usually live in forests and hills, somewhat apart from mainstream society. In India, they are called Scheduled Tribes under Article 342 of the Constitution. This topic covers the features of tribes, major tribes, their problems and welfare measures.

Key points

• Definition (D.N. Majumdar): a tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, members of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation.
• Other terms: adivasi (original inhabitants), vanvasi, girijan.
• Features of tribal society: common territory, common name, common dialect, endogamy, kinship-based organisation, simple economy, own religion (animism, nature worship), own political organisation (tribal council), relative isolation, strong sense of unity.
• Scheduled Tribes are notified by the President under Article 342. Fifth Schedule areas (most states) and Sixth Schedule areas (Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram) have special administration.
• Major tribes of India: Gond, Bhil, Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Naga, Khasi, Toda.
• Tribes of Maharashtra: Gond (Vidarbha – Gadchiroli, Chandrapur), Bhil, Warli (known for Warli painting), Korku (Melghat), Kolam, Katkari, Madia Gond, Pardhan, Thakar, Mahadev Koli.
• Economy types: food gathering and hunting, shifting cultivation (called jhum in the north-east), settled agriculture, pastoral, artisan, industrial labour.
• Problems: land alienation, indebtedness to moneylenders, loss of forest rights, displacement by dams and mines, poverty, illiteracy, poor health and malnutrition, exploitation, loss of identity.
• Welfare measures: reservation in education, jobs and legislatures (Articles 15(4), 16(4), 330, 332); Tribal Sub-Plan; PESA Act 1996 (self-rule in Scheduled Areas); Forest Rights Act 2006; Ministry of Tribal Affairs (1999); Eklavya model residential schools; ashram schools in Maharashtra.
• Approaches: isolation (Verrier Elwin's "national park" view), assimilation (G.S. Ghurye called them "backward Hindus"), and integration (Nehru's Tribal Panchsheel, 1958) – development while respecting tribal culture.

Important terms

• Tribe (जमात / आदिवासी) – a group with common name, territory, dialect and culture.
• Shifting cultivation – clearing forest, cultivating for a few years and moving on.
• Totemism – belief that a clan is linked to a sacred animal or plant.
• Dormitory – youth house in some tribes, e.g. ghotul of the Muria Gonds.
• Land alienation – tribal land passing to non-tribals.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. Which Article of the Constitution deals with Scheduled Tribes?

Article 342 empowers the President to notify Scheduled Tribes for each state or union territory.

Q2. Name four tribes of Maharashtra.

Gond, Bhil, Warli and Korku are important tribes of Maharashtra. Gonds live mainly in Vidarbha; Korkus in Melghat; Warlis in Palghar–Thane.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of tribal society.

• Definition.
• Common territory, name, dialect.
• Endogamy and kinship.
• Simple economy and technology.
• Religion: animism, totemism.
• Political organisation and customs.
• Isolation and unity.

Q4. Discuss the problems of tribal people in India.

• Land alienation and displacement.
• Indebtedness and exploitation.
• Forest laws and loss of livelihood.
• Poverty, illiteracy, health problems.
• Identity crisis.

Q5. Explain the welfare measures for Scheduled Tribes.

• Constitutional safeguards.
• PESA Act 1996; Forest Rights Act 2006.
• Tribal Sub-Plan and schemes.
• Education: ashram schools, scholarships.
• Approaches: isolation, assimilation, integration.

Exam tip

Use Maharashtra examples (Gond, Warli, Korku, Melghat) in answers; examiners in RTMNU often reward local examples.

Quick summary

India has over 10 crore tribal people (8.6% of the population, Census 2011). Contact with outsiders, forest laws, moneylenders and large projects created serious problems for them – loss of land and forests, displacement, poverty and threats to identity. This topic explains these problems in detail and the constitutional, legal and planning measures for tribal welfare, with examples from Maharashtra.

Key points

• Population: Scheduled Tribes are about 10.4 crore (8.6%) as per Census 2011; in Maharashtra about 1.05 crore (9.4%), concentrated in Gadchiroli, Nandurbar, Palghar, Nashik, Chandrapur, Gondia and Amravati (Melghat).
• Land alienation – tribal land passed to non-tribals through debt, fraud and illegal transfer; many tribals became landless labourers.
• Indebtedness – loans from moneylenders and traders at very high interest; bonded labour in some areas.
• Forest problems – colonial and later forest laws restricted collection of minor forest produce (tendu leaves, mahua, bamboo), grazing and shifting cultivation.
• Displacement – dams, mines and industries displaced lakhs of tribals with poor rehabilitation (e.g. Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada affected Bhil villages of Nandurbar).
• Health and nutrition – malnutrition and child deaths (Melghat is a well-known case), sickle-cell anaemia, malaria, lack of hospitals.
• Education – low literacy (ST literacy 59% in 2011 against 73% for all), high dropouts, language barrier.
• Exploitation and unrest – low wages, exploitation of women, migration for work; frustration has fed movements and extremism in some forest regions.
• Identity problems – loss of language, dialects, arts and customs due to outside influence.
• Constitutional safeguards: Article 46 (promotion of educational and economic interests of weaker sections), Article 244 and Fifth/Sixth Schedules, Article 275 (grants), Articles 330 and 332 (reserved seats), Article 338A (National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, set up in 2004).
• Laws: PESA Act 1996 (powers to gram sabhas in Scheduled Areas), Forest Rights Act 2006 (individual and community rights over forest land), SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.
• Programmes: Tribal Sub-Plan (from 1974–75), Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs), Ministry of Tribal Affairs (1999), Eklavya Model Residential Schools, TRIFED for marketing forest produce, ashram schools and the Tribal Development Department in Maharashtra.
• Approaches (recap): isolation, assimilation and integration; India follows integration (Nehru's Panchsheel, 1958).

Important terms

• Land alienation – loss of land ownership by tribals to outsiders.
• Displacement – forced removal of people from their homes for projects.
• Scheduled Area – tribal area under the Fifth Schedule with special protection.
• PESA – Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996.
• Minor forest produce – non-timber forest items like tendu, mahua, honey, bamboo.

Important thinkers and theories

• Verrier Elwin – favoured protection (isolation) of tribal culture.
• G. S. Ghurye – called tribals "backward Hindus", favoured assimilation.
• Jawaharlal Nehru – Tribal Panchsheel; integration approach.
• Dr. Abhay and Rani Bang (SEARCH, Gadchiroli) and Baba Amte and Dr. Prakash Amte (Lok Biradari Prakalp, Hemalkasa) – known health and welfare work among tribals in Vidarbha.

5 important questions

Q1. What is land alienation?

It is the process by which tribal people lose ownership of their land to non-tribals through debt, fraud, sale or encroachment.

Q2. What does the Forest Rights Act 2006 provide?

It recognises the individual and community rights of Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers over forest land and resources that they have used traditionally.

Q3. Explain the major problems of tribal people in India.

• Land alienation and indebtedness.
• Forest restrictions and displacement.
• Health, malnutrition and education.
• Exploitation, migration and loss of identity.
• Examples from Maharashtra.

Q4. Discuss the constitutional safeguards and welfare measures for Scheduled Tribes.

• Articles 46, 244, 275, 330, 332, 338A; Fifth and Sixth Schedules.
• PESA 1996, FRA 2006, Atrocities Act.
• Tribal Sub-Plan, ITDP, Eklavya schools, TRIFED.
• Evaluation: gains and gaps.

Q5. Evaluate the three approaches to tribal development.

• Isolation (Elwin).
• Assimilation (Ghurye).
• Integration (Nehru's Panchsheel).
• Present need: participation and self-rule.

Exam tip

Use Census 2011 figures (8.6% STs) and one Maharashtra example like Melghat malnutrition – examiners value local examples.

Quick summary

Rural society is the society of villages, where most people depend on agriculture and allied work and live in small, close communities. A large majority of India's people still live in villages. This topic covers the features of rural society, rural social structure, the panchayat system, rural problems and rural development.

Key points

• Rural sociology is the study of rural society. In India it developed after Independence with village studies by M.N. Srinivas (Rampura), S.C. Dube (Shamirpet), McKim Marriott and others.
• Gandhi said, "India lives in her villages."
• Agriculture as the main occupation.
• Small size and low population density.
• Close contact with nature.
• Homogeneity of population and culture.
• Strong primary relations, face-to-face contact.
• Importance of family (often joint) and caste.
• Informal social control by customs, religion and caste panchayats.
• Slow social change; traditionalism.
• Features of rural society:
• Rural social structure rests on caste, family, kinship, land ownership and the jajmani system.
• Panchayati Raj: recommended by the Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957); first started in Nagaur, Rajasthan on 2 October 1959. Maharashtra introduced it in 1962. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to a three-tier system — gram panchayat, panchayat samiti and zilla parishad — with one-third seats for women (Maharashtra now reserves 50%).
• Rural problems: poverty, unemployment and underemployment, indebtedness, small and fragmented landholdings, dependence on monsoon, illiteracy, poor health facilities, casteism, migration to cities, farmer suicides (an issue in Vidarbha).
• Rural development programmes: Community Development Programme (1952), IRDP (1978–80), MGNREGA (2005) giving 100 days of guaranteed wage work, National Rural Livelihood Mission (2011), PM Awas Yojana–Gramin, PM Gram Sadak Yojana (2000).
• Changes in rural society: Green Revolution, mechanisation, spread of education, mobile phones and roads, decline of jajmani, rise of new rural leadership, migration.

Important terms

• Village (गाव) – a rural settlement based mainly on agriculture.
• Gram sabha – all adult voters of a village; the base of Panchayati Raj.
• Dominant caste – a caste with land, numbers and power in a village (Srinivas).
• Underemployment / disguised unemployment – more people working on land than needed.
• Little and great tradition – local folk traditions and the larger Sanskritic tradition (Robert Redfield; used by McKim Marriott in India).

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is the gram sabha?

The gram sabha is the body of all adult registered voters of a village. It meets regularly, approves village plans and selects beneficiaries; it is the foundation of Panchayati Raj.

Q2. When did the 73rd Amendment come and what did it do?

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment was passed in 1992 (in force from 1993). It gave constitutional status to the three-tier Panchayati Raj system with regular elections and reservation for SC, ST and women.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of rural society.

• Occupation, size, density.
• Nature, homogeneity.
• Primary relations, family, caste.
• Informal control, religion.
• Slow change.

Q4. Discuss the major problems of rural India.

• Poverty and unemployment.
• Indebtedness and land problems.
• Dependence on monsoon; farmer distress.
• Illiteracy and health.
• Caste conflict; migration.
• Suggest solutions.

Q5. Explain the changes in rural society since Independence.

• Land reforms and Green Revolution.
• Panchayati Raj and democratic decentralisation.
• Education, transport and communication.
• Changes in caste and jajmani.
• Rural development programmes like MGNREGA.

Exam tip

Name at least two government programmes with years in any answer on rural development — MGNREGA (2005) is the safest example.

Quick summary

Panchayati Raj is the system of rural local self-government in India through which villagers plan and manage their own development. It got constitutional status by the 73rd Amendment (1992). Rural development means improving the economic and social life of rural people through planned programmes. This topic explains the structure and working of Panchayati Raj, its role in rural development and its problems.

Key points

• Background: Gandhi's idea of Gram Swaraj; Article 40 (Directive Principle) asks the state to organise village panchayats.
• Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) recommended "democratic decentralisation" with a three-tier system; first launched at Nagaur, Rajasthan on 2 October 1959.
• Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) suggested a two-tier system and party participation; later committees (G. V. K. Rao 1985, L. M. Singhvi 1986) supported constitutional status.
• 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992), in force from 24 April 1993 (celebrated as National Panchayati Raj Day): Part IX of the Constitution, Eleventh Schedule with 29 subjects.
• Main provisions: gram sabha; three tiers (village, block/intermediate, district); direct elections; five-year term; reservation for SC/ST in proportion to population and not less than one-third seats for women (Maharashtra gives 50%); State Election Commission; State Finance Commission.
• Maharashtra: Bombay Village Panchayats Act 1958; Vasantrao Naik Committee (1960); Maharashtra Zilla Parishads and Panchayat Samitis Act 1961, in force from 1 May 1962. Tiers: Gram Panchayat (sarpanch, gram sevak), Panchayat Samiti (sabhapati, Block Development Officer), Zilla Parishad (adhyaksha, Chief Executive Officer).
• Role in rural development: local planning, drinking water, roads, sanitation, primary education and health, implementation of schemes, social justice, women's leadership.
• Rural development programmes: Community Development Programme (1952), IRDP (1978–80), MGNREGA (2005 – 100 days of wage work), National Rural Livelihood Mission (2011, self-help groups – called UMED in Maharashtra), PM Gram Sadak Yojana (2000), Swachh Bharat Mission–Gramin (2014), PM Awas Yojana–Gramin (2016).
• Model villages in Maharashtra: Ralegan Siddhi (Anna Hazare – watershed, de-addiction) and Hiware Bazar (Popatrao Pawar – water conservation, rural prosperity).
• Problems: lack of funds and powers, bureaucratic control, caste and factional politics, "sarpanch-pati" (proxy rule by husbands of women members), low participation in gram sabha, corruption, low awareness.

Important terms

• Democratic decentralisation – transfer of power from the centre and state to local elected bodies.
• Gram sabha – body of all registered voters of a village.
• Gram sevak – government official who acts as secretary of the gram panchayat.
• Self-help group (SHG) – small group of usually 10–20 women who save together and take loans.
• Rural development – planned improvement of the economic, social and cultural life of villagers.

Important thinkers and theories

• Mahatma Gandhi – Gram Swaraj; self-reliant village republics.
• Balwantrai Mehta – three-tier Panchayati Raj.
• Vasantrao Naik – committee for Panchayati Raj in Maharashtra.
• Anna Hazare and Popatrao Pawar – village development models.

5 important questions

Q1. What is the gram sabha?

The gram sabha is the assembly of all adult voters registered in a village. It approves plans, selects beneficiaries and checks the work of the gram panchayat; it is the foundation of Panchayati Raj.

Q2. When did the 73rd Amendment come into force?

On 24 April 1993; this day is observed as National Panchayati Raj Day.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.

• Gram sabha and three-tier structure.
• Elections, five-year term, State Election Commission.
• Reservation for SC/ST and women.
• State Finance Commission; Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects).

Q4. Discuss the role of Panchayati Raj in rural development.

• Local planning and basic services.
• Implementation of MGNREGA, housing, sanitation.
• Women's and weaker sections' leadership.
• Maharashtra examples (Ralegan Siddhi, Hiware Bazar).

Q5. What are the problems of Panchayati Raj institutions? Suggest remedies.

• Funds, powers, staff.
• Caste, factions, proxy leadership, corruption.
• Weak gram sabha.
• Remedies: devolution of funds, training, transparency, social audit.

Exam tip

Remember three dates – 1957 (Balwantrai Mehta), 1992 (73rd Amendment) and 1 May 1962 (Maharashtra) – they fit into almost every answer on this topic.

Quick summary

Urban society is the society of towns and cities, where people work mainly in industry, trade and services and live in large, dense and mixed populations. Urbanisation — the growth of the share of people living in towns — is increasing fast in India. This topic covers features of urban society, urbanisation, its causes, problems and the rural–urban contrast.

Key points

• Urban sociology studies city life. Early thinkers: Louis Wirth ("Urbanism as a Way of Life", 1938), Georg Simmel ("The Metropolis and Mental Life", 1903), the Chicago School (Park and Burgess).
• Census of India definition of urban area: all places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area (statutory towns), and places with a population of at least 5,000, at least 75% of male main workers in non-agricultural work, and a density of at least 400 persons per sq km (census towns).
• Features of urban society (Wirth): large size, high density, heterogeneity; impersonal and secondary relations; division of labour and specialisation; formal social control; social mobility; individualism; nuclear families; rapid change; class more important than caste.
• Urbanisation – the process by which a growing share of population lives in urban areas.
• Causes of urbanisation: industrialisation, employment opportunities, education and health facilities, push factors in villages (poverty, landlessness), transport, government and service sector growth.
• Problems of urbanisation: slums, housing shortage, overcrowding, water shortage, pollution, traffic congestion, crime, unemployment, poor sanitation, loneliness and stress.
• Slum – an area with overcrowded, poor housing and lack of basic amenities. Dharavi in Mumbai is one of Asia's largest slums.
• Government measures: JNNURM (2005), Smart Cities Mission (2015), AMRUT (2015), PM Awas Yojana–Urban (2015), Swachh Bharat Mission (2014).
• Rural–urban continuum: Redfield said there is no sharp break; communities lie along a line from folk to urban.
• Rurbanisation – villages getting urban facilities while keeping rural features.

Important terms

• Urbanisation (नागरीकरण) – growth of the urban share of population.
• Urbanism – the urban way of life (Wirth).
• Metropolitan city – a city with a population of one million (10 lakh) or more (Census usage).
• Suburbanisation – growth of residential areas on the edges of cities.
• Migration – movement of people from one place to another, often rural to urban.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is urbanisation?

Urbanisation is the process in which the proportion of a country's population living in towns and cities increases, mainly due to migration and industrial growth.

Q2. Which three features of city life did Louis Wirth stress?

Wirth said the city is marked by large size, high density and heterogeneity of population. These create impersonal, secondary relations.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of urban society.

• Size, density, heterogeneity.
• Secondary relations.
• Occupational specialisation.
• Formal control; individualism.
• Mobility and fast change.
• Nuclear families.

Q4. Discuss the causes and problems of urbanisation in India.

• Causes: pull and push factors.
• Problems: slums, housing, water, pollution, traffic, crime, unemployment.
• Example: Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur.
• Government schemes.

Q5. Distinguish between rural and urban society.

• Use the table points.
• Add family type, caste vs class, religion, mobility.
• Mention rural–urban continuum.

Exam tip

Start every urban answer with Louis Wirth's three features — size, density, heterogeneity — and then build your points from them.

Quick summary

Urbanisation is the growth of towns and cities and the spread of the urban way of life. India's cities are growing fast because of industries, services and migration from villages. This growth brings opportunities but also problems such as slums, housing shortage, pollution, traffic and crime. This topic explains the causes and effects of urbanisation, major urban problems and the steps taken to solve them.

Key points

• Urbanisation – the increase in the share of population living in urban areas, along with changes in occupation, lifestyle and values.
• Census definition of an urban area (statutory and census towns): a place with a municipality/corporation, or with at least 5,000 people, 75% of male workers in non-farm work and a density of at least 400 per sq km.
• Trends: urban share rose from about 17% (1951) to 31.1% (Census 2011), i.e. about 37.7 crore people. Maharashtra is among the most urbanised large states (about 45% in 2011); Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur, Nashik and Aurangabad are major centres.
• Causes (push and pull factors): push – rural poverty, unemployment, small landholdings, drought, caste oppression; pull – jobs in industry and services, education, health facilities, better wages, attractions of city life.
• Louis Wirth (Urbanism as a Way of Life, 1938) – city life is marked by size, density and heterogeneity, leading to secondary, impersonal relations.
• Positive effects: economic growth, new jobs, spread of education, weakening of caste rules, women's mobility, modern values.
• Slums – about 6.5 crore people lived in slums in 2011; Dharavi in Mumbai is one of Asia's largest slums.
• Housing shortage and high rents.
• Water supply, sanitation and solid waste problems.
• Pollution – air, water and noise.
• Traffic congestion and transport problems.
• Crime, juvenile delinquency, drug addiction.
• Unemployment and the informal sector – street vendors and daily-wage workers with low security.
• Social problems – loneliness, breakdown of joint family, stress, neglect of the elderly.
• Urban problems:
• Over-urbanisation – city population grows faster than jobs and services.
• Government measures: 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992) for urban local bodies; JNNURM (2005); Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT and PM Awas Yojana–Urban (all 2015); Swachh Bharat Mission–Urban (2014); metro rail projects; slum rehabilitation schemes (SRA in Mumbai).

Important terms

• Urbanisation – growth of urban population and urban way of life.
• Urbanism – the typical way of life in cities.
• Slum – a crowded area with poor housing, sanitation and services.
• Over-urbanisation – urban growth beyond the capacity of jobs and services.
• Push–pull factors – reasons that drive people out of villages and attract them to cities.

Important thinkers and theories

• Louis Wirth – urbanism as a way of life.
• Georg Simmel – The Metropolis and Mental Life (1903): city life makes people reserved and calculating.
• Ernest W. Burgess – concentric zone model of city growth.

5 important questions

Q1. What is over-urbanisation?

It is a situation in which the urban population grows faster than the growth of jobs, housing and civic services, leading to slums and unemployment.

Q2. What percentage of India's population was urban in Census 2011?

About 31.1 percent (around 37.7 crore people).

Q3. Explain the causes of urbanisation in India.

• Push factors in villages.
• Pull factors in cities.
• Industrialisation and growth of services.
• Education, transport, communication.
• Government policy and new towns.

Q4. Discuss the major problems of urban areas in India.

• Slums and housing.
• Water, sanitation, waste and pollution.
• Traffic and transport.
• Crime, delinquency, addiction.
• Informal work and social isolation.

Q5. What measures have been taken to solve urban problems?

• 74th Amendment and urban local bodies.
• JNNURM, Smart Cities, AMRUT, PMAY-Urban, SBM-Urban.
• Slum rehabilitation; public transport (metro).
• Suggestions: planned growth of small towns, rural development to reduce migration.

Exam tip

Write the urban problems under clear sub-headings and add one Maharashtra example (Dharavi or Mumbai local trains) – this makes the answer concrete.

Quick summary

Family and marriage are the oldest institutions of Indian society. The traditional Indian family was the joint family, and Hindu marriage was seen as a sacred duty (sanskar). Muslim marriage is a civil contract (nikah). This topic covers the joint family, Hindu and Muslim marriage, marriage laws, and recent changes.

Key points

• Joint family – I. Karve: a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, take part in common worship and are related as some kind of kindred.
• Features of joint family: large size, common residence and kitchen, common property, common worship, authority of the eldest male (karta), mutual obligations.
• Merits: social security for old, sick and widows; economic cooperation; division of labour; socialization; preservation of culture.
• Demerits: lack of privacy, low status of women, conflicts, encouragement of idleness, restrictions on individual freedom.
• Changes: shift towards nuclear families due to industrialisation, urbanisation, education, migration, women's employment and legal changes. Many families remain functionally joint even when living apart.
• Hindu marriage – a religious sacrament with three aims: dharma (duty), praja (progeny) and rati (pleasure), dharma being the highest. Saptapadi (seven steps) completes the marriage.
• Eight forms of Hindu marriage (Manu): Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya (approved); Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa, Paishacha (disapproved).
• Muslim marriage (nikah) – a civil contract; needs proposal (ijab) and acceptance (qubul), witnesses, and mehr (dower) for the wife.
• Laws: Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856; Special Marriage Act 1954; Hindu Marriage Act 1955 (monogamy, divorce rights); Dowry Prohibition Act 1961; Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006 (minimum age 18 for girls and 21 for boys); Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005; Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act 2019 (made instant triple talaq void and punishable).
• Changes in marriage: later age at marriage, more love and inter-caste marriages, free choice, rise in divorce, decline of child marriage, but dowry still persists.

Important terms

• Joint family (एकत्र कुटुंब) – several generations living and sharing together.
• Karta – head of the Hindu joint family who manages property.
• Sanskar – sacred ritual; Hindu marriage is one of them.
• Mehr – amount given or promised to the wife in Muslim marriage.
• Dowry – money or goods given by the bride's family to the groom's family; illegal in India.
• Hypergamy (anuloma) – marriage of a woman into a higher caste; hypogamy (pratiloma) is the reverse.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is a joint family?

A joint family has members of three or more generations living together under one roof, sharing a common kitchen, property and worship, under the authority of the eldest male.

Q2. What are the aims of Hindu marriage?

Hindu marriage has three aims: dharma (religious duty), praja (children) and rati (sexual pleasure). Dharma is considered the most important.

Q3. Explain the features, merits and demerits of the joint family.

• Definition (Karve).
• Features.
• Merits.
• Demerits.
• Brief note on its present state.

Q4. Explain the changes in the Indian family system.

• Causes: industrialisation, urbanisation, education, law, women's work, migration.
• Changes in structure: nuclear families.
• Changes in functions and authority.
• Status of women and children.
• Functional jointness continues.

Q5. Compare Hindu and Muslim marriage.

• Sacrament vs contract.
• Ritual vs proposal and acceptance.
• Mehr in Muslim marriage.
• Rules of divorce.
• Laws governing each.
• Common changes today.

Exam tip

Mention laws with years (Hindu Marriage Act 1955, Dowry Prohibition Act 1961). Accurate law names and years earn quick marks.

Quick summary

The status of women means their position in society compared with men — in rights, education, work, family and politics. The status of Indian women has changed over history: relatively respected in the early Vedic period, declining in later periods, and improving since the social reform movement and Independence. This topic covers this history, problems women face, and constitutional and legal measures.

Key points

• Vedic period: women had access to education and religious rituals; learned women like Gargi and Maitreyi are mentioned.
• Later Vedic and medieval periods: status declined — child marriage, purdah, sati, ban on widow remarriage, no right to property, low literacy.
• Social reform movement (19th century): Raja Ram Mohan Roy worked against sati (abolished by Lord William Bentinck in 1829); Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar for widow remarriage (Act of 1856); Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule opened a school for girls in Pune in 1848; Pandita Ramabai, Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve (women's university, 1916), Tarabai Shinde (Stri Purush Tulana, 1882).
• Constitutional provisions: Article 14 (equality before law), Article 15(1) (no discrimination by sex) and 15(3) (special provisions for women), Article 16 (equal opportunity in jobs), Article 39(d) (equal pay for equal work), Article 42 (maternity relief), Article 51A(e) (renounce practices derogatory to women).
• Political representation: 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992) reserved one-third seats for women in local bodies. The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023 (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam) provides one-third reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies, to come into effect after the next census and delimitation.
• Important laws: Hindu Succession Act 1956 (amended in 2005 to give daughters equal coparcenary rights), Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, Maternity Benefit Act 1961, Equal Remuneration Act 1976, Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2013, PCPNDT Act 1994 (bans sex selection).
• Institutions: National Commission for Women (1992), Ministry of Women and Child Development; schemes like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015) and self-help groups.
• Problems women still face: gender discrimination, low sex ratio, domestic violence, dowry, sexual harassment, unequal wages, low workforce participation, under-representation in politics, health and nutrition gaps.
• Factors improving status: education, employment, legal rights, media, women's movements, economic independence.

Important terms

• Status (दर्जा) – position of a person in society.
• Gender – socially created roles of men and women (different from biological sex).
• Patriarchy – social system where men hold power and authority.
• Sex ratio – number of females per 1,000 males.
• Women empowerment – increasing women's power to make choices about their own lives.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by the status of women?

It means the position women hold in society in relation to men — their rights, roles, opportunities and respect in family, economy and politics.

Q2. What is the contribution of Savitribai Phule?

Savitribai Phule is regarded as India's first woman teacher. With Jyotirao Phule she started a school for girls in Pune in 1848 and worked for widows and lower castes.

Q3. Explain the status of women in different periods of Indian history.

• Vedic: education, respect.
• Later Vedic and Smriti period: decline.
• Medieval: purdah, sati, child marriage.
• British period: reform movement.
• After Independence: legal equality and progress.

Q4. Explain the constitutional and legal provisions for women.

• Articles 14, 15, 16, 39(d), 42, 51A(e).
• Reservation in local bodies and the 2023 Act.
• Laws on dowry, domestic violence, harassment, succession, maternity.
• National Commission for Women.

Q5. Discuss the problems of women in modern India and suggest remedies.

• Discrimination, violence, dowry.
• Sex ratio and female foeticide.
• Unequal wages and low work participation.
• Health and education gaps.
• Remedies: education, strict laws, awareness, economic independence, political participation.

Exam tip

Include Maharashtra's reformers — the Phules, Maharshi Karve, Pandita Ramabai and Tarabai Shinde — to give your answer a strong local base.

Quick summary

Weaker sections are groups that suffered social, educational and economic disadvantage for long periods – mainly Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and religious minorities. The Constitution of India gives them special protection and opportunities so that equality becomes real. This topic explains who the weaker sections are, their problems and the constitutional safeguards and welfare measures for them.

Key points

• Scheduled Castes – castes that faced untouchability; notified under Article 341. They were about 16.6% of India's population in Census 2011.
• Scheduled Tribes – notified under Article 342; about 8.6% (Census 2011).
• Other Backward Classes (OBCs) – socially and educationally backward classes. The Mandal Commission (report 1980) recommended 27% reservation in central jobs; implemented in 1990 and upheld in Indra Sawhney case (1992), which set a 50% ceiling and excluded the "creamy layer".
• Minorities – religious and linguistic minorities; the National Commission for Minorities Act 1992 notifies six religious minorities (Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, Jains).
• Problems of weaker sections: untouchability and atrocities, landlessness, poverty, bonded labour, low education, under-representation in jobs and power, social exclusion.
• Protective (social) safeguards: Article 17 abolishes untouchability; Article 23 bans forced labour; Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955/1976; SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.
• Educational and economic safeguards: Article 15(4) and 15(5) (special provisions in education), Article 16(4) (reservation in public jobs), Article 46 (promotion of educational and economic interests), Articles 29–30 (cultural and educational rights of minorities).
• Political safeguards: Articles 330 and 332 (reserved seats for SCs/STs in Lok Sabha and state assemblies), 73rd and 74th Amendments (reservation in local bodies).
• Commissions: National Commission for Scheduled Castes (Article 338), for Scheduled Tribes (Article 338A, 2004), for Backward Classes (Article 338B, constitutional status by the 102nd Amendment, 2018); Article 340 (commission to study backward classes).
• Recent change: 103rd Amendment (2019) – 10% reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS) among those not covered by other reservations.
• Welfare measures: post-matric scholarships, hostels, Stand-Up India loans, Maharashtra's Social Justice Department, BARTI (Pune) for SC students' training and research.
• Evaluation: a growing educated middle class and political leadership among SCs, STs and OBCs; but benefits are uneven, atrocities continue and the private sector is outside reservation.

Important terms

• Weaker sections – groups suffering long-standing social and economic disadvantage.
• Reservation – setting aside a share of seats or posts for disadvantaged groups.
• Creamy layer – better-off members of OBCs who are excluded from reservation benefits.
• Protective discrimination – special favourable treatment to remove past inequality.
• Atrocity – a crime of humiliation or violence against SC/ST persons.

Important thinkers and theories

• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar – architect of constitutional safeguards; fought for depressed classes.
• B. P. Mandal – chairman of the Second Backward Classes Commission.
• Marc Galanter – called India's policy "competing equalities" (1984).

5 important questions

Q1. What is the creamy layer?

It is the economically and socially advanced section among OBCs whose members are not entitled to reservation, as decided in the Indra Sawhney case (1992).

Q2. Which Article abolishes untouchability?

Article 17 of the Constitution abolishes untouchability and makes its practice in any form an offence.

Q3. Explain the constitutional safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

• Social: Articles 17, 23; laws of 1955 and 1989.
• Educational and economic: Articles 15(4), 16(4), 46.
• Political: Articles 330, 332; local bodies.
• Commissions: Articles 338 and 338A.

Q4. Discuss the problems of weaker sections in India.

• Untouchability and atrocities.
• Poverty, landlessness, bonded labour.
• Low education and health.
• Under-representation; exclusion of minorities.

Q5. Evaluate the policy of reservation in India.

• Aim and history (Mandal Commission).
• Achievements: mobility, representation.
• Criticisms: uneven benefits, creamy layer, merit debate.
• Recent changes (EWS) and suggestions.

Exam tip

Learn article numbers in pairs: 17 (untouchability), 15(4)/16(4) (reservation), 330/332 (seats), 338/338A (commissions). Correct article numbers fetch easy marks.

Quick summary

A social problem is a condition that affects a large number of people in an undesirable way and which society believes can be solved by collective action. India faces many social problems such as poverty, unemployment, casteism, communalism, dowry, alcoholism, drug addiction, corruption and juvenile delinquency. This topic explains the meaning, causes and remedies of major problems.

Key points

• Definition (Fuller and Myers): a social problem is a condition which is defined by a considerable number of persons as a deviation from some social norm which they cherish.
• Features: affects many people, seen as harmful, has social causes, needs collective action, problems are interrelated, change over time.
• Poverty – inability to meet basic needs of food, clothing, shelter, health and education. Causes: unemployment, low productivity, population growth, inequality, illiteracy.
• Unemployment – people willing and able to work do not get work. Types: open, disguised, seasonal, educated, structural.
• Dowry – illegal under the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961; leads to harassment and dowry deaths (Section 304B of the old IPC; now covered in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023).
• Casteism and untouchability – discrimination by caste, despite Article 17.
• Communalism – using religion for hatred between communities; leads to riots and violence.
• Alcoholism and drug addiction – harm health, family and economy. Laws: NDPS Act 1985. Prohibition exists in some states (e.g. Gujarat, Bihar; Wardha and Gadchiroli districts in Maharashtra had prohibition).
• Juvenile delinquency – crimes committed by children below 18. Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2015 deals with it.
• Corruption – misuse of public office for private gain. Laws: Prevention of Corruption Act 1988; Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013; Right to Information Act 2005.
• Child labour – Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986, amended 2016; Article 24 bans employment of children below 14 in hazardous work.
• Remedies: education and awareness, strict enforcement of laws, economic development and employment, role of NGOs and media, social reform, value education.

Important terms

• Social problem (सामाजिक समस्या) – a harmful condition needing collective solution.
• Deviance – behaviour that violates social norms.
• Delinquency – law-breaking by minors.
• Communalism – hostility based on religion.
• Disorganisation – breakdown of social order and norms.

Important thinkers and theories

• Fuller and Myers – definition of social problem; stages: awareness, policy determination, reform.
• Emile Durkheim – anomie (normlessness) as a cause of deviance and suicide.
• R.K. Merton – strain theory: gap between cultural goals and legitimate means leads to deviance.
• Edwin Sutherland – differential association: crime is learned from close groups; also coined "white-collar crime".

5 important questions

Q1. Define social problem.

Fuller and Myers define a social problem as a condition defined by a considerable number of people as a deviation from some social norm that they value. It needs collective action to solve.

Q2. What is juvenile delinquency?

Juvenile delinquency means law-breaking acts committed by children below 18 years. In India it is dealt with under the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.

Q3. Explain the causes and remedies of the dowry problem.

• Meaning and legal position.
• Causes: tradition, status, greed, hypergamy, low status of women.
• Effects: harassment, debt, female foeticide, dowry deaths.
• Remedies: education, women's economic independence, strict laws, social boycott, simple marriages.

Q4. Discuss the problem of corruption in India.

• Meaning and forms (bribery, nepotism, embezzlement).
• Causes: greed, weak laws, red tape, political funding.
• Effects on development and trust.
• Remedies: RTI, Lokpal, e-governance, transparency, values.

Q5. Explain the characteristics of social problems and their interrelation.

• Features listed above.
• Example: poverty leads to child labour, illiteracy and crime.
• Need for an integrated approach.

Exam tip

For any social problem, follow the order: meaning → causes → effects → remedies. Add one relevant law with its year.

Quick summary

Indian society has changed through several processes. Sanskritisation explains how lower castes try to raise their status by adopting the customs of higher castes. Westernisation explains changes due to British rule and Western culture. Modernisation is a wider process of rational, scientific and democratic change. This topic explains these three processes, their features and effects, mainly following M. N. Srinivas and Yogendra Singh.

Key points

• Sanskritisation – M. N. Srinivas first used the term in Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India (1952). It is the process by which a lower caste or tribe changes its customs, rituals, beliefs and way of life in the direction of a higher, often "twice-born", caste (giving up meat and liquor, adopting Brahminical rituals, wearing the sacred thread, changing names).
• Srinivas first called it "Brahminisation" but changed the term because the models were not always Brahmins – Kshatriyas, Vaishyas or a local dominant caste could also be models.
• Features: it gives positional change, not structural change – the caste moves up but the caste hierarchy remains; it usually takes a generation or more; it often follows economic or political improvement.
• Dominant caste (Srinivas) – a caste that is numerically large, owns much land, has economic and political power and good ritual status in a village.
• Westernisation – changes in Indian society and culture due to about 150 years of British rule, in technology, institutions, ideology and values (Social Change in Modern India, 1966).
• Aspects of Westernisation: English education, printing, railways, law courts, bureaucracy, newspapers; new values like humanitarianism, equality and rationalism; changes in dress, food and manners. It helped social reform (abolition of sati 1829, widow remarriage 1856).
• Westernisation is ethically neutral – it does not imply good or bad; it started with the upper castes and spread downward.
• Modernisation – a broader process of change from traditional to modern society: scientific outlook, rationality, industrialisation, urbanisation, democracy, secularism, universal education and achievement-based status. It is not limited to imitating the West.
• Yogendra Singh (Modernization of Indian Tradition, 1973) showed that Indian tradition and modernity coexist and adapt to each other.
• Secularisation – what was earlier regarded as religious ceases to be so; growth of rational, this-worldly thinking.
• Interrelation: a caste may Sanskritise in ritual life and Westernise or modernise in education and occupation at the same time.

Important terms

• Sanskritisation – upward caste mobility by imitating higher-caste customs.
• Westernisation – changes due to British/Western contact.
• Modernisation – change towards rational, scientific and democratic society.
• Dominant caste – a powerful caste in a village due to land, numbers and power.
• Positional change – change in the position of a group without change in the system.

Important thinkers and theories

• M. N. Srinivas – Sanskritisation, Westernisation, dominant caste.
• Yogendra Singh – modernisation of Indian tradition.
• Daniel Lerner – modernisation as a process of mobility, empathy and participation.

5 important questions

Q1. Define Sanskritisation.

According to M. N. Srinivas, Sanskritisation is the process by which a low caste or tribe changes its customs, rituals and way of life in the direction of a high caste in order to claim a higher position in the caste hierarchy.

Q2. What is a dominant caste?

A caste that is numerically strong, owns a large share of land, holds economic and political power and has reasonably high ritual status in a village.

Q3. Explain the features and limitations of Sanskritisation.

• Meaning and origin of the concept.
• Models: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, dominant caste.
• Features: positional change, group process, slow.
• Limitations: no structural change, ignores tribes and other religions, may increase rigidity.

Q4. Discuss the impact of Westernisation on Indian society.

• Meaning and levels (technology, institutions, values).
• Education, law, communication, reforms.
• Changes in caste, family, women's status.
• Criticism: elitist, limited to upper classes at first.

Q5. Explain the meaning and characteristics of modernisation in India.

• Definition and difference from Westernisation.
• Features: rationality, science, democracy, industry, urbanisation.
• Yogendra Singh's view.
• Effects and problems of modernisation.

Exam tip

Always write Srinivas's name with the year 1952 for Sanskritisation and stress "positional, not structural change" – this phrase is what examiners look for.

Quick summary

Globalisation is the growing interconnection of the world's economies, cultures and people through trade, investment, technology, media and migration. India opened its economy in 1991 through the policy of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation (LPG). This has deeply changed Indian employment, family life, culture, values and inequality. This topic explains the meaning of globalisation and its social effects on India.

Key points

• Meaning: Anthony Giddens (1990) described globalisation as the intensification of worldwide social relations that link distant places, so that local events are shaped by events far away.
• New Economic Policy, 1991 – Liberalisation (fewer controls and licences), Privatisation (greater role of private companies, disinvestment), Globalisation (opening to foreign trade and investment).
• Dimensions: economic (trade, multinational companies, outsourcing), technological (internet, mobile phones), cultural (films, food, fashion, music), political (WTO, international agreements) and social (migration, global civil society).
• Positive effects on India: growth of IT and service sectors (Bengaluru, Pune, Hyderabad), new jobs for educated youth, a large middle class, better consumer goods, more women in paid work, spread of communication and global awareness.
• Effects on family and marriage: more nuclear and dual-earner families, late marriage, inter-caste and inter-regional marriages in cities, elderly parents left alone when children migrate.
• Cultural effects: consumerism, fast food and malls; cultural homogenisation (similar tastes worldwide); George Ritzer called this "McDonaldization of society" (1993). At the same time, glocalisation (Roland Robertson) – global products adapt to local tastes, e.g. paneer burgers, regional-language channels.
• Negative effects: growing inequality between rich and poor and between urban and rural areas; informal and insecure jobs (contract work, gig workers); pressure on small farmers and artisans from global competition; displacement and environmental damage; erosion of local languages and crafts.
• Agrarian distress: price fluctuations and costly inputs added to farmer indebtedness; farmer suicides in Vidarbha are often discussed in this context.
• Responses: anti-globalisation and environmental movements, swadeshi campaigns, demand for social security; government schemes such as MGNREGA and food security (2013).
• Sociologists see globalisation as a two-sided process – it opens opportunities but its benefits are unequally shared.

Important terms

• Globalisation – integration of the world through economic, cultural and technological flows.
• Liberalisation – removing government controls on economic activity.
• Privatisation – transfer of activities from the public to the private sector.
• Glocalisation – blending of global and local elements.
• Consumerism – a culture of buying goods as a sign of status and identity.

Important thinkers and theories

• Anthony Giddens – globalisation as worldwide intensification of social relations.
• Roland Robertson – glocalisation.
• George Ritzer – McDonaldization (efficiency, calculability, predictability, control).
• Yogendra Singh – Culture Change in India: Identity and Globalization (2000).

5 important questions

Q1. What does LPG stand for?

Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation – the economic reform policy India adopted in 1991.

Q2. What is glocalisation?

Glocalisation means the mixing of global and local: global companies or ideas adapt to local cultures, e.g. international food chains selling vegetarian or regional items in India.

Q3. Explain the meaning and dimensions of globalisation.

• Definitions (Giddens).
• Economic, technological, cultural, political, social dimensions.
• The 1991 reforms in India.
• Examples from daily life.

Q4. Discuss the impact of globalisation on Indian society.

• Economy and employment (IT, services, informal work).
• Family, marriage and women.
• Culture and values (consumerism, glocalisation).
• Inequality, agriculture and environment.

Q5. "Globalisation is a mixed blessing for India." Discuss.

• Benefits: growth, jobs, technology, awareness.
• Costs: inequality, insecurity, farm distress, cultural loss.
• Role of state policy; conclusion.

Exam tip

Write a balanced answer: a few positive and negative effects, each with an Indian example, and end with a short conclusion – examiners prefer balance over a one-sided view.

Quick summary

A social movement is a collective and organised effort by a large group of people to bring about, or to resist, social change. India has a long history of movements by peasants, Dalits, tribals, women and environmentalists. This topic explains the meaning, features and types of social movements and important examples from India and Maharashtra.

Key points

• Meaning: a social movement is sustained collective action, guided by an ideology and led by an organisation, to change (or protect) some part of society.
• Features: collective action, shared ideology, organisation and leadership, specific goals, continuity over time, use of protest methods (meetings, marches, satyagraha, petitions).
• Stages (Herbert Blumer): social unrest → popular excitement → formalisation → institutionalisation.
• **Types (M. S. A. Rao, Social Movements in India, 1978): reformist (partial change), transformative (change in power structure, e.g. backward-caste movements), revolutionary** (complete change of the system).
• Peasant movements: Champaran Satyagraha (1917, Gandhi), Tebhaga (Bengal, 1946), Telangana (1946–51); Shetkari Sanghatana led by Sharad Joshi in Maharashtra (from 1979–80) for fair prices of crops.
• Dalit movements: Satyashodhak Samaj (Phule, 1873), Dr. Ambedkar's Mahad (1927) and Kalaram temple (1930) satyagrahas, mass conversion to Buddhism (Nagpur, 14 October 1956), Dalit Panthers (Mumbai, 1972) and Dalit literature.
• Tribal movements: Santhal rebellion (1855), Birsa Munda's Ulgulan (1899–1900), Jharkhand movement (state formed in 2000); forest rights struggles.
• Women's movements: social reform era (Savitribai Phule, Pandita Ramabai, Maharshi Karve); post-1970s movements against dowry, rape and domestic violence; the Shahada movement of tribal women in Dhule district (1970s); demand for reservation in local bodies.
• Environmental movements: Chipko (Uttarakhand, 1973 – hugging trees), Silent Valley (Kerala), Narmada Bachao Andolan (from 1985, Medha Patkar) against displacement by dams; Appiko (Karnataka).
• New social movements – after the 1970s, focused on identity, environment, gender and human rights rather than class alone.
• Role of movements: they voice the problems of marginal groups, create awareness, push for new laws (e.g. Forest Rights Act 2006, domestic violence law 2005) and deepen democracy.

Important terms

• Social movement – organised collective effort for or against social change.
• Ideology – set of ideas that guides a movement.
• Reformist movement – seeks partial change within the existing system.
• Revolutionary movement – seeks total change of the social order.
• New social movements – movements based on identity, environment, gender, rights.

Important thinkers and theories

• M. S. A. Rao – classification of movements; relative deprivation as a cause.
• Ghanshyam Shah – Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature (1990).
• Herbert Blumer – stages of social movements.
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Sharad Joshi, Medha Patkar – leaders of major movements.

5 important questions

Q1. Define social movement.

A social movement is an organised and continuing collective effort by a group of people, guided by an ideology and leadership, to bring about or resist social change.

Q2. What is the Chipko movement?

An environmental movement that began in 1973 in the Garhwal Himalaya (now Uttarakhand), where villagers, especially women, hugged trees to stop commercial felling; Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt were its leading figures.

Q3. Explain the meaning, features and types of social movements.

• Definition and elements.
• Features: collective action, ideology, organisation, goals.
• Types: reformist, transformative, revolutionary (M. S. A. Rao).
• Stages (Blumer).

Q4. Discuss the Dalit movement in Maharashtra.

• Phule and Satyashodhak Samaj.
• Ambedkar: Mahad, Kalaram, political parties, Buddhist conversion (1956).
• Dalit Panthers and Dalit literature.
• Achievements and present issues.

Q5. Write a note on peasant and environmental movements in India.

• Peasant: Champaran, Tebhaga, Telangana, Shetkari Sanghatana.
• Environmental: Chipko, Silent Valley, Narmada Bachao Andolan.
• Common issues: livelihood, land, displacement, justice.

Exam tip

For every type of movement, give one national and one Maharashtra example with a year. Dates such as 1873, 1927, 1956, 1972 and 1985 make your answer look strong.

Quick summary

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890) and Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar (1891–1956) were great social reformers from Maharashtra who fought against caste discrimination and for the rights of the oppressed and of women. Phule started the movement for social equality in the 19th century; Ambedkar carried it forward and gave India its Constitution.

Key points

• Jyotirao Phule was born in 1827 in Maharashtra, in the Mali community, and worked mainly in Pune.
• With his wife Savitribai Phule, he opened a school for girls in Pune in 1848 and later schools for children of lower castes.
• He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj on 24 September 1873 to fight caste inequality, Brahminical domination and superstition, and to promote rational religion and equality.
• Books: Gulamgiri (Slavery, 1873), Shetkaryacha Asud (The Cultivator's Whipcord), Sarvajanik Satyadharma.
• He opened a home to prevent infanticide for widows, supported widow remarriage, and opened his own water tank to untouchables.
• He was given the title "Mahatma" in 1888 in Mumbai.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 at Mhow (Madhya Pradesh) in a Mahar family from Maharashtra (Ambadawe, Ratnagiri).
• He studied at Columbia University and the London School of Economics; he was an economist, lawyer and sociologist.
• He founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924) and newspapers Mooknayak (1920) and Bahishkrit Bharat (1927).
• Mahad Satyagraha (Chavdar Tale, 20 March 1927) for the right to use public water; the Manusmriti was burnt there on 25 December 1927. Kalaram Temple entry satyagraha at Nashik (1930).
• Poona Pact (1932) with Gandhi – reserved seats for depressed classes in place of separate electorates.
• Founded the Independent Labour Party (1936) and the Scheduled Castes Federation (1942).
• He was Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution and India's first Law Minister.
• His books include Annihilation of Caste (1936), Who Were the Shudras? and The Buddha and His Dhamma.
• On 14 October 1956 at Nagpur (Deekshabhoomi) he embraced Buddhism with lakhs of followers. He died on 6 December 1956. He received the Bharat Ratna (posthumously) in 1990.
• His motto: "Educate, Agitate, Organise."

Important terms

• Satyashodhak Samaj – "Truth-seekers' Society" founded by Phule.
• Satyagraha (सत्याग्रह) – non-violent struggle for rights.
• Depressed classes – term used in colonial times for untouchable castes.
• Separate electorate – a system where only members of a group vote for their own representatives.
• Deekshabhoomi – the place in Nagpur where Ambedkar embraced Buddhism.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. When and why was the Satyashodhak Samaj founded?

Jyotirao Phule founded it on 24 September 1873 to free lower castes from Brahminical domination and superstition and to spread equality and education.

Q2. What was the Mahad Satyagraha?

In March 1927 Dr. Ambedkar led thousands of people to drink water from the Chavdar Tale (public tank) at Mahad, asserting the right of untouchables to use public water sources.

Q3. Explain the social contribution of Mahatma Jyotirao Phule.

• Education of girls and lower castes.
• Satyashodhak Samaj.
• Writings: Gulamgiri, Shetkaryacha Asud.
• Work for widows and farmers.
• Opposition to caste and priestly control.

Q4. Explain Dr. Ambedkar's contribution to the upliftment of the depressed classes.

• Organisations and newspapers.
• Mahad and Kalaram satyagrahas.
• Poona Pact.
• Constitutional safeguards: Article 17, reservation.
• Conversion to Buddhism.
• Motto: Educate, Agitate, Organise.

Q5. Compare the ideas of Phule and Ambedkar on caste.

• Both opposed caste hierarchy and Brahminical scriptures.
• Phule stressed education and the Satyashodhak movement.
• Ambedkar used law, politics and the Constitution; finally chose Buddhism.
• Ambedkar called Phule one of his gurus (with Buddha and Kabir).
• Their lasting impact on Maharashtra and India.

Exam tip

Learn the dates in the table; questions on these two reformers are very common in Nagpur university papers, and dates give quick marks.

Quick summary

Savitribai Phule and Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj were two great social reformers of Maharashtra. Savitribai, India's first woman teacher of a girls' school, fought for women's education and against caste and gender injustice. Shahu Maharaj, ruler of Kolhapur, used state power for social justice – reservation, free education and the end of untouchability. This topic explains their life, work and sociological importance.

Key points

• Savitribai Phule was born on 3 January 1831 at Naigaon (Satara district) and married Jyotirao Phule in 1840; Jyotirao taught her to read and write.
• On 1 January 1848 the Phule couple started a school for girls at Bhide Wada, Pune; Savitribai taught there and is regarded as India's first woman teacher of a girls' school. She faced stones and mud thrown by orthodox people but did not stop.
• She opened more schools for girls and for children of lower castes, and with Jyotirao founded the Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (home to prevent infanticide, 1863) for pregnant widows.
• She opposed child marriage and the tonsuring of widows, supported widow remarriage and inter-caste marriage, and worked for the Satyashodhak Samaj, leading it after Jyotirao's death (1890).
• Her poetry collections Kavya Phule (1854) and Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (1892) spread the message of education and equality.
• She died on 10 March 1897 while nursing plague patients in Pune. Her birthday is observed in Maharashtra as Balika Din; Pune University was renamed after her in 2014.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj was born on 26 June 1874 (Kagal), adopted into the Kolhapur royal family, and ruled Kolhapur from 1894 to 1922.
• On 26 July 1902 he reserved 50% of posts in his state's services for backward classes – one of the earliest reservation policies in India.
• He made primary education free and compulsory in Kolhapur (1917) and opened hostels for students of many castes and communities, making Kolhapur a centre of education.
• He opposed untouchability, supported inter-caste marriage and widow remarriage by law, and encouraged the Satyashodhak and non-Brahmin movement (the Vedokta controversy strengthened his stand).
• He supported Dr. B. R. Ambedkar – helped his newspaper Mooknayak and at the Mangaon conference (1920) declared that Ambedkar would be the leader of the depressed classes.
• He was called "Rajarshi" (royal sage); his birthday, 26 June, is observed in Maharashtra as Social Justice Day. He died on 6 May 1922.

Important terms

• Satyashodhak Samaj – "Society of Truth Seekers", founded by Jyotirao Phule in 1873.
• Reservation – setting aside posts or seats for backward groups.
• Non-Brahmin movement – movement against Brahmin dominance in religion, education and jobs.
• Vedokta controversy – dispute over Shahu Maharaj's right to rituals performed with Vedic mantras.
• Social justice – fair treatment and equal opportunity for all sections.

Important thinkers and theories

• Savitribai Phule – women's education, dignity of widows, equality.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj – state-led social justice, reservation, free education.
• Both continued the reform tradition of Mahatma Jyotirao Phule and influenced Dr. Ambedkar.

5 important questions

Q1. When and where did the Phules start their first girls' school?

On 1 January 1848 at Bhide Wada in Pune.

Q2. Why is 26 July 1902 important?

On that day Shahu Maharaj reserved 50% of posts in Kolhapur state services for backward classes, an early example of reservation in India.

Q3. Explain the contribution of Savitribai Phule to women's education and social reform.

• Life and education.
• Girls' schools from 1848; opposition faced.
• Infanticide prevention home, widows, Satyashodhak Samaj.
• Literary work; service during plague; legacy.

Q4. Discuss the social reforms of Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj.

• Reservation (1902).
• Free and compulsory education (1917), hostels.
• Fight against untouchability; laws on inter-caste marriage and widow remarriage.
• Support to Ambedkar; non-Brahmin movement.

Q5. Assess the sociological importance of Savitribai Phule and Shahu Maharaj.

• Education as a tool of mobility.
• Attack on caste and patriarchy.
• Early model of affirmative action.
• Influence on the Constitution and on Maharashtra's social life.

Exam tip

Keep four dates ready: 1848 (girls' school), 1897 (Savitribai's death), 1902 (reservation) and 1917 (free education). Dates with short points score well.