इंग्रजी English (Compulsory)

Quick summary

Phonology studies the sound system of a language. English spelling does not show pronunciation clearly, so linguists use phonetic symbols (IPA) for each sound. In standard British English (RP) there are 44 sounds: 24 consonants and 20 vowels. This topic covers the organs of speech and how vowels and consonants are described and classified.

Key points

• Phonetics studies speech sounds in general; phonology studies the sound system of a particular language.
• A phoneme is the smallest sound unit that changes meaning: /p/ and /b/ in pin – bin.
• English has 26 letters but 44 phonemes (RP): 24 consonants and 20 vowels (12 pure vowels + 8 diphthongs).
• Organs of speech: lungs (air supply), vocal cords in the larynx (voice), pharynx, soft palate (velum), hard palate, alveolar (teeth) ridge, teeth, lips, tongue (tip, blade, front, back) and the nasal cavity.
• Voiced sounds are made with vibrating vocal cords (/b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/); voiceless sounds without vibration (/p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /s/).
• Consonants are classified by three features: voicing, place of articulation and manner of articulation.
• Places: bilabial (/p b m/), labio-dental (/f v/), dental (/θ ð/ as in thin, this), alveolar (/t d s z n l/), post-alveolar (/r/), palato-alveolar (/ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ/), palatal (/j/), velar (/k g ŋ/), glottal (/h/).
• Manners: plosives (/p b t d k g/), fricatives (/f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h/), affricates (/tʃ dʒ/ as in church, judge), nasals (/m n ŋ/), lateral (/l/), approximants/semi-vowels (/w r j/).
• Vowels are made with free flow of air; they are described by tongue height (close/open), part of the tongue raised (front/central/back) and lip position (rounded/unrounded).
• Pure vowels (monophthongs): 7 short (/ɪ e æ ʌ ɒ ʊ ə/) and 5 long (/iː ɜː ɑː ɔː uː/).
• A diphthong is a glide from one vowel to another in one syllable: /eɪ/ (day), /aɪ/ (my), /ɔɪ/ (boy), /əʊ/ (go), /aʊ/ (now), /ɪə/ (here), /eə/ (hair), /ʊə/ (poor).
• /ə/ (schwa) is the most common English vowel, found in weak syllables: about /əˈbaʊt/.

Important terms

• Phoneme – smallest meaning-changing sound.
• Minimal pair – two words differing in one sound only (ship – sheep).
• Articulator – a speech organ that shapes a sound.
• Plosive – sound made by complete closure and sudden release of air.
• Fricative – sound made by air passing through a narrow gap with friction.
• Diphthong – a vowel glide within one syllable.
• IPA – International Phonetic Alphabet.

Language study

Common errors of Indian speakers: /v/ and /w/ confused (vest – west), /z/ said as /dʒ/ (zero), /ʃ/ and /s/ mixed, and pure vowels used for diphthongs (/goː/ for go).

5 important questions

Q1. What is a phoneme? Give an example.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that changes meaning. In "cat" and "bat", /k/ and /b/ are different phonemes.

Q2. Describe the sound /b/ by its three features.

/b/ is a voiced bilabial plosive.

Q3. Describe the organs of speech and their role.

• Lungs push air out (the source of energy).
• Vocal cords in the larynx vibrate for voiced sounds.
• Soft palate: raised for oral sounds, lowered for nasal sounds.
• Tongue: the most active articulator; touches teeth, ridge or palate.
• Lips, teeth, alveolar ridge and hard palate act as places of contact.
• Nasal cavity gives resonance to /m n ŋ/.

Q4. How are English consonants classified? Explain with examples.

• By voicing: voiced (/d/) vs voiceless (/t/).
• By place: bilabial (/m/), labio-dental (/f/), dental (/θ/), alveolar (/s/), palato-alveolar (/ʃ/), velar (/k/), glottal (/h/).
• By manner: plosive (/p/), fricative (/s/), affricate (/tʃ/), nasal (/n/), lateral (/l/), approximant (/w/).
• A full description gives all three: /g/ = voiced velar plosive.

Q5. What are diphthongs? List the diphthongs of English with examples.

• A diphthong is a glide from one vowel position to another within a syllable.
• English (RP) has 8: /eɪ/ day, /aɪ/ time, /ɔɪ/ boy, /əʊ/ go, /aʊ/ house, /ɪə/ near, /eə/ chair, /ʊə/ tour.
• Closing diphthongs glide towards /ɪ/ or /ʊ/; centring diphthongs glide towards /ə/.

Exam tip

For "describe the sound" questions, always write in the order voicing – place – manner (e.g. voiceless alveolar fricative for /s/). Learn the consonant chart; it answers half the phonology questions.

Quick summary

Correct English pronunciation depends not only on sounds but also on syllables, stress and intonation. A syllable is a unit of pronunciation, stress is the extra force on a syllable or word, and intonation is the rise and fall of the voice. These features carry meaning and make speech natural and clear.

Key points

• A syllable is a unit of sound with a vowel at its centre (nucleus); consonants may come before (onset) and after (coda) it.
• Words have one or more syllables: cat (1), wa-ter (2), beau-ti-ful (3), u-ni-ver-si-ty (5).
• Some consonants (/l/, /n/) can form a syllable alone in weak positions: bottle /ˈbɒtl/, button /ˈbʌtn/ (syllabic consonants).
• Word stress: in a word of more than one syllable, one syllable is spoken louder and longer. It is marked with ˈ before the stressed syllable: ˈteacher, beˈgin, ˌunderˈstand.
• Stress can change the part of speech: ˈrecord (noun) – reˈcord (verb), ˈpresent (noun/adj.) – preˈsent (verb), ˈobject – obˈject.
• Some suffixes take the stress on the syllable before them: -tion, -sion, -ic, -ical, -ity: eduˈcation, ecoˈnomic, abiˈlity.
• Sentence stress: content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs) are usually stressed; function words (articles, prepositions, auxiliaries, pronouns) are usually unstressed and take weak forms.
• Weak forms: "and" → /ən/, "to" → /tə/, "can" → /kən/ in normal speech.
• Intonation is the pattern of pitch (rise and fall) in speech. Speech is divided into tone groups; each has a nucleus (tonic syllable) where the main pitch change happens.
• Falling tone ( ↘ ): statements, commands, wh-questions, exclamations: Where do you ˋlive?
• Rising tone ( ↗ ): yes/no questions, polite requests, incomplete thoughts: Are you ˊready?
• Fall-rise shows doubt, reservation or a hint: I ˇmight come.
• Question tags fall when we expect agreement and rise when we really ask: It's hot, ˋisn't it? / You paid, ˊdidn't you?

Important terms

• Syllable – unit of pronunciation built round a vowel.
• Stress – greater force on a syllable or word.
• Primary stress – the strongest stress in a word (ˈ).
• Secondary stress – weaker stress (ˌ).
• Weak form – reduced pronunciation of a function word.
• Intonation – rise and fall of pitch.
• Tonic syllable / nucleus – the syllable with the main pitch movement in a tone group.

Language study

5 important questions

Q1. Divide into syllables and mark stress: (a) computer (b) political (c) democracy.

(a) com-ˈpu-ter (3) (b) po-ˈli-ti-cal (4) (c) de-ˈmo-cra-cy (4).

Q2. How does stress change meaning in "record"?

ˈRecord (stress on first syllable) is a noun: a written account. reˈcord (stress on second) is a verb: to write down or store.

Q3. What is word stress? Explain some rules with examples.

• Word stress is the prominence given to one syllable in a word.
• Most two-syllable nouns and adjectives: stress on the first syllable (ˈtable, ˈhappy).
• Most two-syllable verbs: stress on the second syllable (beˈgin, deˈcide).
• Words ending in -tion, -ic, -ity: stress on the syllable before the suffix (inforˈmation, sciˈentific, uniˈversity).
• Compound nouns: stress on the first part (ˈblackboard, ˈclassroom).

Q4. Explain the uses of falling and rising tones.

• Falling tone: complete statements, commands, wh-questions, exclamations – sounds definite.
• Rising tone: yes/no questions, polite requests, lists before the last item, incomplete statements.
• Question tags: falling = asking for agreement; rising = real question.
• Wrong tone can make a polite request sound rude.

Q5. What are weak forms? Why are they important?

• Function words have strong and weak pronunciations.
• In connected speech the weak form is normal: "a cup of tea" /ə kʌp əv tiː/.
• Examples: was /wəz/, for /fə/, them /ðəm/, at /ət/.
• Using strong forms everywhere makes speech sound mechanical; weak forms give natural rhythm.
• Strong forms are used for emphasis or at the end of a sentence (Where are you ˈfrom?).

Exam tip

Mark stress with ˈ just before the stressed syllable, not over the vowel. Practise by saying words aloud and clapping on the stressed syllable.

Quick summary

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words. Its basic unit is the morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning or grammatical function. This topic explains types of morphemes, allomorphs, inflection and derivation, and the main processes of word formation in English.

Key points

• A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. "Unhappiness" has three: un + happy + ness.
• A morpheme is not the same as a syllable: "elephant" has three syllables but one morpheme; "cats" has one syllable but two morphemes.
• Free morphemes can stand alone as words (book, run, kind). Bound morphemes cannot (un-, -ness, -s, -ed).
• Free morphemes are lexical (content words: boy, eat, green) or functional (and, the, in, it).
• Bound morphemes are derivational or inflectional.
• Derivational morphemes make new words and often change the word class: teach → teacher, happy → happiness, modern → modernise.
• Inflectional morphemes add grammatical meaning without changing the class. English has only eight: plural -s, possessive -'s, third-person -s, past -ed, past participle -en/-ed, present participle -ing, comparative -er, superlative -est.
• An allomorph is a variant form of the same morpheme. The plural morpheme has allomorphs /s/ (cats), /z/ (dogs), /ɪz/ (buses), and irregular forms like -en (oxen).
• A zero allomorph shows a grammatical meaning with no visible change: sheep (plural), cut (past).
• A root is the core of a word; a stem is the form to which inflections are added; an affix is a bound morpheme added to a root (prefix, suffix).
• Class-changing suffixes: -ment, -ness, -ise, -ful (develop → development). Class-maintaining suffixes: -hood, -ship, -dom (child → childhood: noun to noun).
• Word-formation processes: affixation, compounding (blackboard), conversion (to email), clipping (exam), blending (brunch), acronyms (NATO), back-formation (edit from editor), borrowing (jungle, guru).

Important terms

• Morpheme – smallest unit of meaning.
• Free / bound morpheme – can / cannot stand alone.
• Allomorph – variant of a morpheme.
• Inflection – grammatical ending (no new word).
• Derivation – forming a new word by affixes.
• Back-formation – forming a shorter word by removing a supposed affix (televise from television).

Language study

5 important questions

Q1. Define a morpheme and divide "carelessness" into morphemes.

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. care + -less + -ness = 3 morphemes.

Q2. What is an allomorph?

An allomorph is a variant pronunciation or form of the same morpheme, e.g. the plural morpheme appears as /s/, /z/, /ɪz/, -en or zero.

Q3. Distinguish between free and bound morphemes with examples.

• Free morphemes stand alone as words: man, go, quick, and.
• Bound morphemes must attach to another morpheme: re-, dis-, -ly, -s.
• Free: lexical (content) and functional (grammar words).
• Bound: derivational (un-, -ness) and inflectional (-ed, -s).
• Some roots are bound too: -ceive in receive, perceive.

Q4. Explain the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes.

• Inflectional: show grammar (number, tense, comparison); do not create a new word; never change class; e.g. walk-ed, tall-er.
• Derivational: create new words; may change class (beauty → beautiful); include prefixes and suffixes.
• Order: derivation first, inflection last (teach-er-s).
• English has eight inflectional suffixes but hundreds of derivational ones.

Q5. Explain any five processes of word formation.

• Compounding: two words joined – bookshelf, sunrise.
• Conversion: change of class without form change – a run, to google.
• Clipping: shortening – advertisement → ad, influenza → flu.
• Blending: parts of two words – motel, smog.
• Back-formation: removing an affix-like part – edit (from editor), donate (from donation).
• Acronym: initials read as a word – laser, NASA.

Exam tip

When splitting words into morphemes, check meaning, not syllables. Label each part (free/bound, inflectional/derivational) for full marks.

Quick summary

An essay is a planned piece of writing on one topic, with an introduction, a body of several paragraphs and a conclusion. University papers ask for essays of 300–500 words on social, educational, environmental or current topics. Planning before writing is the key to a good essay.

Key points

• An essay has three parts: introduction, body and conclusion.
• The introduction catches attention (a fact, a question, a quotation) and states what the essay will discuss.
• Each body paragraph develops one point with explanation and examples.
• The conclusion sums up and gives a final view or suggestion; it brings no new points.
• Make a quick outline of 4–6 points before you start.
• Arrange points logically: causes → effects → solutions, or past → present → future, or advantages → disadvantages.
• Use linking words between paragraphs (moreover, on the other hand, as a result, finally).
• Give balanced views on debatable topics, then your opinion.
• Use correct, simple language; avoid memorised flowery lines that do not fit the topic.
• Keep to the word limit and give the essay a suitable title.

Important terms

• Thesis statement – one sentence in the introduction that gives the main argument.
• Outline – a short plan of points written before the essay.
• Body paragraph – a paragraph developing one point.
• Transition – a word or phrase that links paragraphs.
• Conclusion – closing paragraph that sums up.

Language study

Types of essays:

• Descriptive – describes a place, person or scene (A Visit to Tadoba).
• Narrative – tells a story or experience (A Journey I Will Never Forget).
• Expository – explains a topic (Digital India).
• Argumentative / persuasive – takes a side with reasons (Should Social Media Be Regulated?).
• Reflective – personal thoughts on an idea (What Success Means to Me).

Useful openers: "In today's world...", "It is often said that...", "Have you ever wondered...?"
Useful closers: "To conclude...", "In the end, it is clear that...", "Only then can we..."

5 important questions

Q1. What is a thesis statement?

It is a clear sentence, usually at the end of the introduction, that states the main idea or argument the essay will support.

Q2. What should a conclusion contain?

A short summary of the main points, a final opinion or suggestion, and a memorable closing line. It should not introduce new arguments.

Q3. Explain the steps of writing a good essay.

1. Understand the topic and its key words.
2. Brainstorm points.
3. Make an outline in logical order.
4. Write an attractive introduction with a thesis.
5. Write body paragraphs, one point each, with examples.
6. Write a conclusion.
7. Revise for grammar, spelling and word limit.

Q4. Prepare an outline for an essay on "Environmental Pollution".

• Introduction: meaning of pollution; growing concern.
• Types: air, water, soil, noise, plastic.
• Causes: vehicles, industries, waste, use of chemicals.
• Effects: diseases, climate change, loss of biodiversity.
• Remedies: public transport, waste segregation, laws, tree planting.
• Role of students and citizens.
• Conclusion: a clean environment is a shared duty.

Q5. What are the qualities of a good essay?

• Unity: stays on the topic.
• Order: logical arrangement of ideas.
• Clarity: simple and correct language.
• Evidence: examples and facts.
• Originality: the writer's own thinking.
• Proper length and paragraphing.

Exam tip

Spend the first three minutes making an outline. An organised essay with fewer fancy words scores higher than a long, unplanned one.

Quick summary

A report is a factual account of an event, survey, visit or problem, written for a particular reader. It is objective and well organised under headings. Students may be asked to write a newspaper report or a formal report on a college event.

Key points

• A report presents facts, not personal feelings.
• It answers the 5 Ws and 1 H: What, When, Where, Who, Why and How.
• It is usually written in the past tense and often in the passive voice.
• A newspaper report has a headline, a byline (reporter, place, date), and paragraphs from most important to least important.
• A formal report (to an authority) has a title, introduction, findings, conclusion and recommendations.
• Language should be formal, clear and impersonal.
• Use headings, numbered points or short paragraphs so the reader can find information quickly.
• Include accurate names, dates and figures; check them.
• End with the outcome or with suggestions.

Important terms

• Headline – short title of a news report.
• Byline – reporter's name, place and date.
• Lead (intro) – the first paragraph that gives the main facts.
• Findings – what was observed or discovered.
• Recommendations – suggested actions.
• Objectivity – reporting without personal bias.

Language study

Format of a newspaper report:

1. Headline – "College Celebrates Marathi Bhasha Din"
2. Byline – By a Staff Reporter, Bhandara, 27 February
3. Lead – what happened, where, when, who (2–3 lines)
4. Details – programme, guests, speeches, participation
5. Ending – outcome, quotes, future plans

Format of a formal report:

1. Title
2. To / From / Date (if a report to an authority)
3. Introduction – purpose and method
4. Findings – under sub-headings
5. Conclusion
6. Recommendations

Useful phrases: "The event was organised by...", "It was observed that...", "The programme concluded with a vote of thanks."

5 important questions

Q1. What are the 5 Ws and 1 H in report writing?

What happened, When, Where, Who was involved, Why it happened, and How it happened. A good report answers all six.

Q2. Why is a report written in the past tense and passive voice?

Because it describes events that have already taken place, and the passive keeps the focus on the event rather than on the writer, making it objective.

Q3. Write a newspaper report on a blood donation camp in your college.

• Headline: 120 Students Donate Blood at College Camp.
• Byline: By our Correspondent, (city), (date).
• Lead: The NSS unit organised a blood donation camp on (date) in association with the district hospital.
• Details: inauguration by the Principal; doctors' checkup; number of donors; awareness talk.
• Ending: certificates given; organisers thanked; plan for another camp.

Q4. Explain the structure of a formal report.

• Title showing the subject.
• Introduction: purpose, who asked for it, method used.
• Findings: facts arranged under headings.
• Conclusion: what the findings mean.
• Recommendations: practical suggestions.
• Signature, name and date.

Q5. What are the qualities of a good report?

• Accuracy of facts.
• Objectivity, no personal opinion unless asked.
• Clarity and brevity.
• Logical structure with headings.
• Formal language.
• Complete answers to the 5 Ws and 1 H.

Exam tip

Put the most important facts in the first paragraph of a news report. Examiners check the headline, byline and lead first.

Quick summary

Note-making is writing down the main points of a passage in a short, organised form using headings, sub-headings and abbreviations. Summarising is rewriting those notes as a short paragraph in your own words. Both are useful study skills and common exam questions.

Key points

• Read the passage carefully and find its central idea; this becomes the title.
• Identify main points (headings) and supporting points (sub-headings).
• Use a numbered, indented format: 1., 1.1, 1.2, 2., 2.1...
• Write notes as phrases, not full sentences.
• Use recognisable abbreviations (govt. for government, edu. for education, & for and) and list them in a key.
• Leave out examples, repetitions and minor details unless asked.
• A summary is usually about one-third of the original length.
• The summary should be in full sentences, in your own words, in a single paragraph.
• Keep the writer's meaning; do not add your own opinion.

Important terms

• Note-making – recording key points in a brief, structured form.
• Summary – a shortened version of a passage in full sentences.
• Heading / sub-heading – main point / supporting point in notes.
• Abbreviation – a short form of a word (approx., info., dept.).
• Key – list explaining abbreviations used.

Language study

Sample format:

Title: Benefits of Yoga

1. Physical benefits

1.1 flexibility ↑
1.2 better posture
1.3 strong immunity

1. Mental benefits

2.1 stress ↓
2.2 better concentration

1. Social benefits

3.1 healthy lifestyle
3.2 community classes

Key: ↑ = increases, ↓ = reduces

Standard abbreviations: e.g. (for example), i.e. (that is), etc. (and so on), w.r.t. (with respect to), approx. (approximately), max. (maximum), min. (minimum).

5 important questions

Q1. What is the difference between note-making and summarising?

Note-making records main points in phrases under headings with abbreviations. Summarising expresses the same points as connected sentences in a short paragraph.

Q2. Why is a key to abbreviations necessary?

Because the reader may not understand the short forms. A key lists each abbreviation with its full form so the notes are clear to anyone.

Q3. Explain the steps of note-making.

1. Read the passage twice.
2. Find the main idea and give a title.
3. Pick out main points as headings.
4. Add supporting points as sub-headings.
5. Use phrases and abbreviations.
6. Arrange in numbered, indented format.
7. Add a key of abbreviations (at least four).

Q4. What are the features of a good summary?

• About one-third of the original.
• Covers all main points, no examples or repetition.
• Written in own words and full sentences.
• One coherent paragraph with a title.
• No personal comment.

Q5. How does note-making help students?

• Saves time during revision.
• Improves understanding, because you must find the main ideas.
• Helps memory through organised structure.
• Useful for lectures, research and competitive exams.
• Trains clear thinking and brevity.

Exam tip

Marks are given for title, format (numbering and indentation), content and key. Do not forget the key – at least four abbreviations.

Quick summary

A précis is a short, exact summary of a passage that keeps all its essential ideas in about one-third of the words. It tests reading, judgement and expression. Unlike notes, a précis is written in full sentences in a connected paragraph with a title.

Key points

• Length: about one-third of the original (state the word count at the end if asked).
• Keep the central idea and all essential points; drop examples, illustrations, repetition and decoration.
• Write in your own words; do not copy sentences.
• Use third person and reported (indirect) speech; usually past tense for narration.
• Do not add your own opinion, comments or new facts.
• Keep the original order of ideas unless a better logical order helps.
• Give a short, suitable title.
• Make a rough draft first, count words, then write the fair copy.
• Replace long phrases with single words (e.g. "people who live in cities" → urban people).

Important terms

• Précis – a concise, accurate summary of a passage.
• Central idea – the main point of the passage.
• Rough draft – first attempt before the final version.
• Reported speech – indirect form of someone's words.
• One-word substitution – one word replacing a phrase.

Language study

One-word substitutions useful in précis:

Change of direct statements: "I believe education is the key," said Gandhiji → Gandhiji believed that education was the key.

5 important questions

Q1. What is the ideal length of a précis?

About one-third of the original passage. A 300-word passage should give a précis of about 100 words.

Q2. Should a précis contain the writer's examples? Why?

Usually not. Examples only illustrate the main idea; the précis keeps the ideas themselves and drops the illustrations.

Q3. Explain the steps of précis writing.

1. Read the passage two or three times.
2. Find the central theme and write a title.
3. Underline the essential points.
4. Remove examples, repetition and ornaments.
5. Write a rough draft in your own words.
6. Count words; cut or add to reach one-third.
7. Write the fair copy with title and word count.

Q4. Distinguish between a précis and a summary.

• A précis follows strict rules: one-third length, third person, no opinion, exact meaning.
• A summary is more flexible in length and form.
• A précis is a test of exact expression; a summary is a general shortening.
• Both keep the main ideas and drop details.

Q5. What mistakes should be avoided in a précis?

• Copying sentences from the passage.
• Adding personal opinions.
• Using first-person "I" or direct speech.
• Leaving out essential points.
• Going far above or below one-third length.
• Forgetting the title.

Exam tip

Write the word count of your précis at the end in brackets, e.g. (102 words). It shows the examiner you followed the rule.

Quick summary

An advertisement is a paid public message that informs people about a product, service, event or need and persuades them to act. Advertisement writing uses catchy, brief and persuasive language. University papers ask students to draft classified and display advertisements and to explain the features and language of advertising.

Key points

• Advertisements have three aims: to inform, to persuade and to remind.
• Classified advertisements are short, plain, text-only ads in newspapers under headings like Situations Vacant, For Sale, To Let, Matrimonial, Lost and Found. They are charged by words or lines, so they are brief.
• Display advertisements are larger, use a slogan, pictures, varied fonts and a box; they are used for products, sales, events and courses.
• The AIDA model guides an effective ad: Attention (headline/visual), Interest (key features), Desire (benefits, offers), Action (contact, "Hurry!", "Call now").
• A good ad has a catchy headline, a short slogan, the body copy (details), and contact details (address, phone, website).
• Language of advertising: short sentences and phrases, imperatives (Buy now, Visit today), adjectives (pure, fresh, best), superlatives, questions ("Tired of power cuts?"), rhyme and alliteration ("Fresh, fast and friendly"), numbers and offers (50% off).
• Ads often use emotional appeals (family, health, pride, fear of missing out) and rational appeals (price, quality, durability).
• Public-service ads (blood donation, road safety, Swachh Bharat) persuade for social good rather than profit.
• Ethics: ads must be truthful and must not mislead; in India the ASCI (Advertising Standards Council of India) sets voluntary rules.
• Social media and digital ads are short, visual and target specific groups.

Important terms

• Slogan / tagline – a short memorable phrase linked to a brand.
• Copy – the written text of an advertisement.
• Headline – the main line that catches attention.
• Classified ad – short text ad arranged under categories.
• Display ad – large designed ad with visuals.
• AIDA – Attention, Interest, Desire, Action.
• USP – unique selling proposition: what makes the product special.

Language study

Sample classified ad (For Sale):

Display ad plan:

5 important questions

Q1. What is the AIDA formula?

AIDA stands for Attention, Interest, Desire and Action – the four steps an ad should take a reader through, from noticing it to buying or responding.

Q2. Distinguish between classified and display advertisements.

Classified ads are short, text-only, grouped by category and charged by words. Display ads are bigger, designed with pictures, slogans and fonts, and are costlier.

Q3. Explain the features of the language of advertising.

• Short, simple and catchy phrases.
• Imperative verbs: Try, Buy, Call, Hurry.
• Positive adjectives and superlatives: best, purest, unbeatable.
• Questions to involve the reader.
• Wordplay, rhyme, alliteration and slogans.
• Use of numbers, offers and deadlines.
• Personal address with "you".

Q4. Draft a display advertisement for a new solar water heater.

• Headline: "Hot water, zero bills!"
• Picture area: heater on a rooftop.
• Features: 100-litre tank, 5-year warranty, works even on cloudy days, saves up to ₹500 a month.
• Offer: free installation, easy EMI.
• Slogan: "Let the sun do the work."
• Contact: dealer's name, address, phone; "Book today!"

Q5. Write a note on public-service advertisements.

• Ads made to spread social awareness, not to sell products.
• Issued by government, NGOs or companies (CSR).
• Topics: road safety, voting, cleanliness, girl education, anti-tobacco.
• Use emotional appeal and simple slogans ("Don't drink and drive").
• They change attitudes and behaviour of the public.

Exam tip

Put a display ad in a box, keep it under 50 words, and include headline, slogan, details and contact. For classified ads, write in one continuous block with no picture.

Quick summary

A review is a short evaluative piece that describes a book or film and gives the writer's honest opinion about it. It helps readers decide whether to read or watch it. Review writing appears in NEP communication and mass-communication papers, and students are asked to write book and film reviews of 200–300 words.

Key points

• A review is not just a summary; it combines information, analysis and judgement.
• Begin with the basic details: title, author/director, publisher or production house, year, genre (novel, biography, thriller, comedy).
• Give a brief, spoiler-free outline of the plot or content; never reveal the ending of a story or film.
• Discuss strengths and weaknesses: theme, characters, style, language, structure for a book; story, direction, acting, music, cinematography and editing for a film.
• Support opinions with examples (a scene, a character, a line).
• Mention the target audience: who will enjoy it.
• End with a clear recommendation, often with a rating (e.g. 4/5).
• Tone should be balanced, fair and polite, even when critical.
• Use the present tense to describe the story: "The hero returns to his village…"
• Use evaluative vocabulary: gripping, moving, slow-paced, predictable, thought-provoking, well-crafted.
• A good review has a catchy title, an engaging opening and a crisp conclusion.

Important terms

• Review – a critical evaluation of a book, film, play or product.
• Genre – a category of work (mystery, romance, biopic).
• Spoiler – information that reveals important plot twists.
• Cinematography – the art of camera work and lighting in film.
• Protagonist – the main character.
• Rating – a score showing the reviewer's overall judgement.

Language study

Structure of a review:

Useful phrases: "The novel explores…", "The film is a moving portrait of…", "The plot drags in the second half", "a must-read for…", "worth watching for its performances".

5 important questions

Q1. What is a review?

A review is a brief critical write-up that describes a book or film and gives the writer's balanced opinion and recommendation.

Q2. What is a spoiler, and why should a reviewer avoid it?

A spoiler reveals key twists or the ending. Reviewers avoid spoilers so that readers can still enjoy the work.

Q3. Write a review of a book you have read recently (outline).

• Title: "Wings of Fire" by A. P. J. Abdul Kalam with Arun Tiwari (Universities Press, 1999), autobiography.
• Content: Kalam's childhood in Rameswaram, education, work in rocket and missile programmes.
• Strengths: simple language, honest tone, inspiring message about hard work and teachers.
• Weakness: technical details may slow some readers.
• Audience: students and young readers.
• Verdict: a must-read; 4.5/5.

Q4. What points should be covered in a film review?

• Basic details: title, director, lead actors, language, genre, year.
• Brief storyline without the climax.
• Acting and characterisation.
• Direction, screenplay and pace.
• Music, songs and background score.
• Cinematography, editing and visual effects.
• Message or theme; overall verdict and rating.

Q5. Distinguish between a summary and a review.

• A summary only restates the content in brief; a review evaluates it.
• A summary is objective; a review includes the writer's opinion.
• A summary may include the ending; a review avoids spoilers.
• A review ends with a recommendation or rating; a summary does not.

Exam tip

Keep about one-third of your review for the outline and two-thirds for analysis and opinion. Examiners look for judgement supported by examples.