समाजशास्त्र Sociology

Quick summary

India is a land of great diversity — of race, religion, language, caste, culture and geography. Yet there is a deep underlying unity that has held Indian society together for centuries. This topic explains the forms of diversity, the bonds of unity, and the threats to national integration.

Key points

• Diversity means collective differences among people — differences of race, religion, language, region and culture.
• Geographical – Himalayas, plains, deserts, plateaus, coasts; very different climates.
• Racial – B.S. Guha (1930s) classified Indian people into six main racial types.
• Linguistic – the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution lists 22 languages (Marathi is one of them); hundreds of mother tongues are spoken.
• Religious – Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and tribal faiths.
• Caste – thousands of castes and sub-castes.
• Cultural – different food, dress, festivals, art and customs.
• Forms of diversity in India:
• Geographical unity – natural boundaries; the idea of Bharatvarsha.
• Religious unity – pilgrimage centres in all four directions (Char Dham), shared rituals, Bhakti and Sufi movements.
• Cultural unity – epics Ramayana and Mahabharata known everywhere; common festivals.
• Political unity – one Constitution, one citizenship, democracy, national symbols.
• Linguistic links – Sanskrit tradition, Hindi and English as link languages.
• Economic interdependence – national market, railways, planning.
• Bases of unity:
• Unity in diversity means many differences existing together inside one common identity, like a garland of different flowers.
• Threats to national integration: communalism, casteism, regionalism, linguism, terrorism, economic inequality, insurgency.
• Measures: secular education, equal development of regions, strict laws against communal violence, role of media, cultural exchange, the National Integration Council (set up in 1961).

Important terms

• Diversity (विविधता) – collective differences among people.
• National integration – a feeling of oneness among citizens despite differences.
• Communalism – using religion to create hostility between communities.
• Regionalism – placing loyalty to a region above loyalty to the nation.
• Secularism – the state treats all religions equally and has no state religion.
• Pluralism – many cultures living together with mutual respect.

Important thinkers and theories

• Herbert Risley and B.S. Guha – classifications of Indian racial types.
• Jawaharlal Nehru – The Discovery of India, idea of India as a palimpsest with layers of culture.
• Rabindranath Tagore – India as a meeting place of many peoples.
• Article 25–28 of the Constitution – freedom of religion; the word "secular" added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976).

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by unity in diversity?

It means that people of different races, religions, languages and cultures live together with a shared sense of belonging to one nation. Differences exist, but a common identity binds them.

Q2. How many languages are in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution?

The Eighth Schedule lists 22 languages, including Marathi, Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and others.

Q3. Explain the forms of diversity in Indian society.

• Geographical diversity.
• Racial diversity (Guha's classification).
• Linguistic diversity.
• Religious diversity.
• Caste and cultural diversity.
• Give examples from Maharashtra (Marathi, Gondi, Warli; festivals).

Q4. Explain the bonds of unity in India.

• Geographical, religious, cultural, political, linguistic, economic unity.
• Role of pilgrimage, epics, festivals.
• Constitution and democracy.
• Freedom movement as a unifying force.

Q5. What are the threats to national integration? Suggest measures.

• Communalism, casteism, regionalism, linguism.
• Terrorism and insurgency.
• Economic inequality.
• Measures: education, balanced development, laws, media, political will, cultural programmes.

Exam tip

Write diversity and unity under clear sub-headings. A short Maharashtra example in each part makes your answer stand out.

Quick summary

Traditional Indian society was organised around a set of religious-philosophical ideas: Varna (division of society), Ashrama (stages of life), Purushartha (goals of life) and the doctrine of Karma and rebirth. Together with Dharma, they gave meaning and order to individual and social life. This topic explains each base and how they have changed today.

Key points

• Dharma – the moral duty and right conduct suited to one's position and stage of life. It was the binding principle of all other bases.
• Varna system – the four-fold division of society mentioned in the Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda: Brahmin (learning, priesthood), Kshatriya (rule, protection), Vaishya (trade, agriculture), Shudra (service). In theory it was based on qualities and work (guna and karma); later it became hereditary and merged with jati.
• Ashrama system – life (ideal span 100 years) divided into four stages of about 25 years each: Brahmacharya (student life, celibacy, learning), Grihastha (householder – marriage, family, earning; considered the most important as it supports the others), Vanaprastha (gradual withdrawal, guidance to others), Sannyasa (renunciation, pursuit of moksha).
• Purushartha – four aims of human life: Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth and material means), Kama (desire, pleasure, emotional and family life), Moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death). Artha and Kama were to be pursued within the limits of Dharma.
• The Ashramas and Purusharthas are linked: Brahmacharya prepares for Dharma, Grihastha fulfils Artha and Kama, and Vanaprastha–Sannyasa lead towards Moksha.
• Karma and rebirth – every action has its result; present life is the result of past actions, and present actions decide the future birth. This idea encouraged acceptance of one's duties, but also justified inequality of caste.
• Sanskaras – rites of passage (traditionally sixteen) from birth to death, such as namakarana, upanayana, vivaha and antyeshti, which marked the stages of life.
• Sociological view: these ideas created a stable, integrated and duty-centred social order, but also hierarchy, rigidity and the subordination of Shudras and women. Thinkers like P. H. Prabhu (Hindu Social Organisation, 1940) and K. M. Kapadia studied these bases.
• Present position: the Ashrama scheme is followed only symbolically; varna has no legal place (Constitution gives equality); values of duty, family and spirituality still influence people.

Important terms

• Varna – one of the four broad orders of traditional Hindu society.
• Ashrama – stage of life with its own duties.
• Purushartha – goal of human life.
• Karma – the principle that actions have consequences in this or the next life.
• Moksha – final liberation, the highest goal of life.

Important thinkers and theories

• P. H. Prabhu – Hindu Social Organisation; psychological and social meaning of Ashrama and Purushartha.
• K. M. Kapadia – Marriage and Family in India; Hindu marriage as a sacrament.
• G. S. Ghurye – difference between varna and jati.

5 important questions

Q1. Name the four Purusharthas.

Dharma (righteous duty), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire and pleasure) and Moksha (liberation).

Q2. Why is Grihastha Ashrama considered the most important?

Because the householder earns, raises a family and supports the people of the other three Ashramas (students, the old and ascetics); he also fulfils Artha and Kama within Dharma.

Q3. Explain the Ashrama system and its social significance.

• Meaning and four stages with duties.
• Link with Purusharthas.
• Significance: planned life, balance of worldly and spiritual aims, social order.
• Present relevance and decline.

Q4. Discuss the Varna system and its differences from caste (jati).

• Origin (Purusha Sukta), four varnas and duties.
• Basis: guna and karma in theory.
• Varna vs jati: four vs thousands, theory vs actual group, all-India vs local.
• Effects and present position.

Q5. Explain the doctrine of Karma and its influence on Indian society.

• Meaning; link with rebirth and Dharma.
• Positive effects: moral discipline, sense of duty.
• Negative effects: fatalism, justification of inequality.
• Changes due to education and modern values.

Exam tip

A neat table linking the four Ashramas with their main Purushartha helps you write a strong, quick answer.

Quick summary

Caste is a hereditary and endogamous group, usually linked with a traditional occupation, ranked in a hierarchy based on ideas of purity and pollution. It is the most distinctive feature of traditional Indian society. This topic covers definitions, features, theories of origin, the jajmani system, and changes in caste today.

Key points

• The word caste comes from the Portuguese casta, meaning race or breed. The Indian terms are varna and jati.
• Varna – four orders: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. Jati – the actual local caste groups, numbering in thousands.
• Herbert Risley – a collection of families bearing a common name, claiming descent from a common ancestor, following the same hereditary occupation.
• Ketkar (S.V. Ketkar) – a social group with membership by birth and a strict rule against marrying outside it.
• Definitions:
• Segmental division of society.
• Hierarchy.
• Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse.
• Civil and religious disabilities and privileges.
• Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation.
• Restrictions on marriage (endogamy).
• G.S. Ghurye's six features of caste (Caste and Race in India, 1932):
• Theories of origin: traditional (divine) theory from the Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda; racial theory (Risley); occupational theory (Nesfield); political theory (Abbe Dubois – Brahmins' creation); religious theory; Hutton's mana theory. No single theory is fully accepted.
• Jajmani system – traditional exchange of services between castes in villages; patron families (jajman) received services from service castes (kamin) and paid in kind. Studied by W.H. Wiser (1936).
• Louis Dumont (Homo Hierarchicus, 1966): purity and pollution is the core principle of caste.
• Changes in caste: weakening of commensal restrictions and occupational rules, inter-caste marriages, Sanskritization, role of caste in politics (vote banks), caste associations, reservation and constitutional safeguards.
• Constitution: Article 15 bans discrimination; Article 17 abolishes untouchability; Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955 (renamed Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1976); SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.

Important terms

• Caste (जात) – hereditary, endogamous status group.
• Endogamy – marriage within one's own caste.
• Commensality – rules about with whom one may eat.
• Dominant caste – a caste with numerical strength, land and political power in a village (M.N. Srinivas).
• Sanskritization – lower castes adopting customs of higher castes to rise in status (Srinivas).
• Casteism – loyalty to one's caste above wider interests.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is the jajmani system?

It is the traditional village system in which service castes (kamins) provided services like pottery, carpentry and barbering to landowning families (jajmans) and received grain and goods in return.

Q2. Distinguish between varna and jati.

Varna is the fourfold all-India scriptural division of society. Jati is the actual local endogamous caste group; there are thousands of jatis.

Q3. Explain Ghurye's features of the caste system.

• Segmental division.
• Hierarchy.
• Restrictions on food and social intercourse.
• Civil and religious disabilities.
• Hereditary occupation.
• Endogamy.
• Brief example for each.

Q4. Discuss the theories of the origin of caste.

• Traditional/divine theory.
• Racial theory.
• Occupational theory.
• Political (Brahminical) theory.
• Evaluation: caste arose from many factors over a long time.

Q5. Explain the changes in the caste system in modern India.

• Causes: industrialisation, urbanisation, education, democracy, law, reform movements.
• Changes: occupation, commensality, marriage, untouchability.
• Continuity: endogamy, caste in politics.
• Constitutional measures and reservation.

Exam tip

Ghurye's six features are the most asked question on caste — learn them in order and give one example each.

Quick summary

Tribes are groups of people with a common name, territory, dialect and culture, who usually live in forests and hills, somewhat apart from mainstream society. In India, they are called Scheduled Tribes under Article 342 of the Constitution. This topic covers the features of tribes, major tribes, their problems and welfare measures.

Key points

• Definition (D.N. Majumdar): a tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, members of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation.
• Other terms: adivasi (original inhabitants), vanvasi, girijan.
• Features of tribal society: common territory, common name, common dialect, endogamy, kinship-based organisation, simple economy, own religion (animism, nature worship), own political organisation (tribal council), relative isolation, strong sense of unity.
• Scheduled Tribes are notified by the President under Article 342. Fifth Schedule areas (most states) and Sixth Schedule areas (Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram) have special administration.
• Major tribes of India: Gond, Bhil, Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Naga, Khasi, Toda.
• Tribes of Maharashtra: Gond (Vidarbha – Gadchiroli, Chandrapur), Bhil, Warli (known for Warli painting), Korku (Melghat), Kolam, Katkari, Madia Gond, Pardhan, Thakar, Mahadev Koli.
• Economy types: food gathering and hunting, shifting cultivation (called jhum in the north-east), settled agriculture, pastoral, artisan, industrial labour.
• Problems: land alienation, indebtedness to moneylenders, loss of forest rights, displacement by dams and mines, poverty, illiteracy, poor health and malnutrition, exploitation, loss of identity.
• Welfare measures: reservation in education, jobs and legislatures (Articles 15(4), 16(4), 330, 332); Tribal Sub-Plan; PESA Act 1996 (self-rule in Scheduled Areas); Forest Rights Act 2006; Ministry of Tribal Affairs (1999); Eklavya model residential schools; ashram schools in Maharashtra.
• Approaches: isolation (Verrier Elwin's "national park" view), assimilation (G.S. Ghurye called them "backward Hindus"), and integration (Nehru's Tribal Panchsheel, 1958) – development while respecting tribal culture.

Important terms

• Tribe (जमात / आदिवासी) – a group with common name, territory, dialect and culture.
• Shifting cultivation – clearing forest, cultivating for a few years and moving on.
• Totemism – belief that a clan is linked to a sacred animal or plant.
• Dormitory – youth house in some tribes, e.g. ghotul of the Muria Gonds.
• Land alienation – tribal land passing to non-tribals.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. Which Article of the Constitution deals with Scheduled Tribes?

Article 342 empowers the President to notify Scheduled Tribes for each state or union territory.

Q2. Name four tribes of Maharashtra.

Gond, Bhil, Warli and Korku are important tribes of Maharashtra. Gonds live mainly in Vidarbha; Korkus in Melghat; Warlis in Palghar–Thane.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of tribal society.

• Definition.
• Common territory, name, dialect.
• Endogamy and kinship.
• Simple economy and technology.
• Religion: animism, totemism.
• Political organisation and customs.
• Isolation and unity.

Q4. Discuss the problems of tribal people in India.

• Land alienation and displacement.
• Indebtedness and exploitation.
• Forest laws and loss of livelihood.
• Poverty, illiteracy, health problems.
• Identity crisis.

Q5. Explain the welfare measures for Scheduled Tribes.

• Constitutional safeguards.
• PESA Act 1996; Forest Rights Act 2006.
• Tribal Sub-Plan and schemes.
• Education: ashram schools, scholarships.
• Approaches: isolation, assimilation, integration.

Exam tip

Use Maharashtra examples (Gond, Warli, Korku, Melghat) in answers; examiners in RTMNU often reward local examples.

Quick summary

India has over 10 crore tribal people (8.6% of the population, Census 2011). Contact with outsiders, forest laws, moneylenders and large projects created serious problems for them – loss of land and forests, displacement, poverty and threats to identity. This topic explains these problems in detail and the constitutional, legal and planning measures for tribal welfare, with examples from Maharashtra.

Key points

• Population: Scheduled Tribes are about 10.4 crore (8.6%) as per Census 2011; in Maharashtra about 1.05 crore (9.4%), concentrated in Gadchiroli, Nandurbar, Palghar, Nashik, Chandrapur, Gondia and Amravati (Melghat).
• Land alienation – tribal land passed to non-tribals through debt, fraud and illegal transfer; many tribals became landless labourers.
• Indebtedness – loans from moneylenders and traders at very high interest; bonded labour in some areas.
• Forest problems – colonial and later forest laws restricted collection of minor forest produce (tendu leaves, mahua, bamboo), grazing and shifting cultivation.
• Displacement – dams, mines and industries displaced lakhs of tribals with poor rehabilitation (e.g. Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada affected Bhil villages of Nandurbar).
• Health and nutrition – malnutrition and child deaths (Melghat is a well-known case), sickle-cell anaemia, malaria, lack of hospitals.
• Education – low literacy (ST literacy 59% in 2011 against 73% for all), high dropouts, language barrier.
• Exploitation and unrest – low wages, exploitation of women, migration for work; frustration has fed movements and extremism in some forest regions.
• Identity problems – loss of language, dialects, arts and customs due to outside influence.
• Constitutional safeguards: Article 46 (promotion of educational and economic interests of weaker sections), Article 244 and Fifth/Sixth Schedules, Article 275 (grants), Articles 330 and 332 (reserved seats), Article 338A (National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, set up in 2004).
• Laws: PESA Act 1996 (powers to gram sabhas in Scheduled Areas), Forest Rights Act 2006 (individual and community rights over forest land), SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.
• Programmes: Tribal Sub-Plan (from 1974–75), Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs), Ministry of Tribal Affairs (1999), Eklavya Model Residential Schools, TRIFED for marketing forest produce, ashram schools and the Tribal Development Department in Maharashtra.
• Approaches (recap): isolation, assimilation and integration; India follows integration (Nehru's Panchsheel, 1958).

Important terms

• Land alienation – loss of land ownership by tribals to outsiders.
• Displacement – forced removal of people from their homes for projects.
• Scheduled Area – tribal area under the Fifth Schedule with special protection.
• PESA – Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996.
• Minor forest produce – non-timber forest items like tendu, mahua, honey, bamboo.

Important thinkers and theories

• Verrier Elwin – favoured protection (isolation) of tribal culture.
• G. S. Ghurye – called tribals "backward Hindus", favoured assimilation.
• Jawaharlal Nehru – Tribal Panchsheel; integration approach.
• Dr. Abhay and Rani Bang (SEARCH, Gadchiroli) and Baba Amte and Dr. Prakash Amte (Lok Biradari Prakalp, Hemalkasa) – known health and welfare work among tribals in Vidarbha.

5 important questions

Q1. What is land alienation?

It is the process by which tribal people lose ownership of their land to non-tribals through debt, fraud, sale or encroachment.

Q2. What does the Forest Rights Act 2006 provide?

It recognises the individual and community rights of Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers over forest land and resources that they have used traditionally.

Q3. Explain the major problems of tribal people in India.

• Land alienation and indebtedness.
• Forest restrictions and displacement.
• Health, malnutrition and education.
• Exploitation, migration and loss of identity.
• Examples from Maharashtra.

Q4. Discuss the constitutional safeguards and welfare measures for Scheduled Tribes.

• Articles 46, 244, 275, 330, 332, 338A; Fifth and Sixth Schedules.
• PESA 1996, FRA 2006, Atrocities Act.
• Tribal Sub-Plan, ITDP, Eklavya schools, TRIFED.
• Evaluation: gains and gaps.

Q5. Evaluate the three approaches to tribal development.

• Isolation (Elwin).
• Assimilation (Ghurye).
• Integration (Nehru's Panchsheel).
• Present need: participation and self-rule.

Exam tip

Use Census 2011 figures (8.6% STs) and one Maharashtra example like Melghat malnutrition – examiners value local examples.

Quick summary

Rural society is the society of villages, where most people depend on agriculture and allied work and live in small, close communities. A large majority of India's people still live in villages. This topic covers the features of rural society, rural social structure, the panchayat system, rural problems and rural development.

Key points

• Rural sociology is the study of rural society. In India it developed after Independence with village studies by M.N. Srinivas (Rampura), S.C. Dube (Shamirpet), McKim Marriott and others.
• Gandhi said, "India lives in her villages."
• Agriculture as the main occupation.
• Small size and low population density.
• Close contact with nature.
• Homogeneity of population and culture.
• Strong primary relations, face-to-face contact.
• Importance of family (often joint) and caste.
• Informal social control by customs, religion and caste panchayats.
• Slow social change; traditionalism.
• Features of rural society:
• Rural social structure rests on caste, family, kinship, land ownership and the jajmani system.
• Panchayati Raj: recommended by the Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957); first started in Nagaur, Rajasthan on 2 October 1959. Maharashtra introduced it in 1962. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to a three-tier system — gram panchayat, panchayat samiti and zilla parishad — with one-third seats for women (Maharashtra now reserves 50%).
• Rural problems: poverty, unemployment and underemployment, indebtedness, small and fragmented landholdings, dependence on monsoon, illiteracy, poor health facilities, casteism, migration to cities, farmer suicides (an issue in Vidarbha).
• Rural development programmes: Community Development Programme (1952), IRDP (1978–80), MGNREGA (2005) giving 100 days of guaranteed wage work, National Rural Livelihood Mission (2011), PM Awas Yojana–Gramin, PM Gram Sadak Yojana (2000).
• Changes in rural society: Green Revolution, mechanisation, spread of education, mobile phones and roads, decline of jajmani, rise of new rural leadership, migration.

Important terms

• Village (गाव) – a rural settlement based mainly on agriculture.
• Gram sabha – all adult voters of a village; the base of Panchayati Raj.
• Dominant caste – a caste with land, numbers and power in a village (Srinivas).
• Underemployment / disguised unemployment – more people working on land than needed.
• Little and great tradition – local folk traditions and the larger Sanskritic tradition (Robert Redfield; used by McKim Marriott in India).

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is the gram sabha?

The gram sabha is the body of all adult registered voters of a village. It meets regularly, approves village plans and selects beneficiaries; it is the foundation of Panchayati Raj.

Q2. When did the 73rd Amendment come and what did it do?

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment was passed in 1992 (in force from 1993). It gave constitutional status to the three-tier Panchayati Raj system with regular elections and reservation for SC, ST and women.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of rural society.

• Occupation, size, density.
• Nature, homogeneity.
• Primary relations, family, caste.
• Informal control, religion.
• Slow change.

Q4. Discuss the major problems of rural India.

• Poverty and unemployment.
• Indebtedness and land problems.
• Dependence on monsoon; farmer distress.
• Illiteracy and health.
• Caste conflict; migration.
• Suggest solutions.

Q5. Explain the changes in rural society since Independence.

• Land reforms and Green Revolution.
• Panchayati Raj and democratic decentralisation.
• Education, transport and communication.
• Changes in caste and jajmani.
• Rural development programmes like MGNREGA.

Exam tip

Name at least two government programmes with years in any answer on rural development — MGNREGA (2005) is the safest example.

Quick summary

Panchayati Raj is the system of rural local self-government in India through which villagers plan and manage their own development. It got constitutional status by the 73rd Amendment (1992). Rural development means improving the economic and social life of rural people through planned programmes. This topic explains the structure and working of Panchayati Raj, its role in rural development and its problems.

Key points

• Background: Gandhi's idea of Gram Swaraj; Article 40 (Directive Principle) asks the state to organise village panchayats.
• Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) recommended "democratic decentralisation" with a three-tier system; first launched at Nagaur, Rajasthan on 2 October 1959.
• Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) suggested a two-tier system and party participation; later committees (G. V. K. Rao 1985, L. M. Singhvi 1986) supported constitutional status.
• 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992), in force from 24 April 1993 (celebrated as National Panchayati Raj Day): Part IX of the Constitution, Eleventh Schedule with 29 subjects.
• Main provisions: gram sabha; three tiers (village, block/intermediate, district); direct elections; five-year term; reservation for SC/ST in proportion to population and not less than one-third seats for women (Maharashtra gives 50%); State Election Commission; State Finance Commission.
• Maharashtra: Bombay Village Panchayats Act 1958; Vasantrao Naik Committee (1960); Maharashtra Zilla Parishads and Panchayat Samitis Act 1961, in force from 1 May 1962. Tiers: Gram Panchayat (sarpanch, gram sevak), Panchayat Samiti (sabhapati, Block Development Officer), Zilla Parishad (adhyaksha, Chief Executive Officer).
• Role in rural development: local planning, drinking water, roads, sanitation, primary education and health, implementation of schemes, social justice, women's leadership.
• Rural development programmes: Community Development Programme (1952), IRDP (1978–80), MGNREGA (2005 – 100 days of wage work), National Rural Livelihood Mission (2011, self-help groups – called UMED in Maharashtra), PM Gram Sadak Yojana (2000), Swachh Bharat Mission–Gramin (2014), PM Awas Yojana–Gramin (2016).
• Model villages in Maharashtra: Ralegan Siddhi (Anna Hazare – watershed, de-addiction) and Hiware Bazar (Popatrao Pawar – water conservation, rural prosperity).
• Problems: lack of funds and powers, bureaucratic control, caste and factional politics, "sarpanch-pati" (proxy rule by husbands of women members), low participation in gram sabha, corruption, low awareness.

Important terms

• Democratic decentralisation – transfer of power from the centre and state to local elected bodies.
• Gram sabha – body of all registered voters of a village.
• Gram sevak – government official who acts as secretary of the gram panchayat.
• Self-help group (SHG) – small group of usually 10–20 women who save together and take loans.
• Rural development – planned improvement of the economic, social and cultural life of villagers.

Important thinkers and theories

• Mahatma Gandhi – Gram Swaraj; self-reliant village republics.
• Balwantrai Mehta – three-tier Panchayati Raj.
• Vasantrao Naik – committee for Panchayati Raj in Maharashtra.
• Anna Hazare and Popatrao Pawar – village development models.

5 important questions

Q1. What is the gram sabha?

The gram sabha is the assembly of all adult voters registered in a village. It approves plans, selects beneficiaries and checks the work of the gram panchayat; it is the foundation of Panchayati Raj.

Q2. When did the 73rd Amendment come into force?

On 24 April 1993; this day is observed as National Panchayati Raj Day.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.

• Gram sabha and three-tier structure.
• Elections, five-year term, State Election Commission.
• Reservation for SC/ST and women.
• State Finance Commission; Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects).

Q4. Discuss the role of Panchayati Raj in rural development.

• Local planning and basic services.
• Implementation of MGNREGA, housing, sanitation.
• Women's and weaker sections' leadership.
• Maharashtra examples (Ralegan Siddhi, Hiware Bazar).

Q5. What are the problems of Panchayati Raj institutions? Suggest remedies.

• Funds, powers, staff.
• Caste, factions, proxy leadership, corruption.
• Weak gram sabha.
• Remedies: devolution of funds, training, transparency, social audit.

Exam tip

Remember three dates – 1957 (Balwantrai Mehta), 1992 (73rd Amendment) and 1 May 1962 (Maharashtra) – they fit into almost every answer on this topic.

Quick summary

Urban society is the society of towns and cities, where people work mainly in industry, trade and services and live in large, dense and mixed populations. Urbanisation — the growth of the share of people living in towns — is increasing fast in India. This topic covers features of urban society, urbanisation, its causes, problems and the rural–urban contrast.

Key points

• Urban sociology studies city life. Early thinkers: Louis Wirth ("Urbanism as a Way of Life", 1938), Georg Simmel ("The Metropolis and Mental Life", 1903), the Chicago School (Park and Burgess).
• Census of India definition of urban area: all places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area (statutory towns), and places with a population of at least 5,000, at least 75% of male main workers in non-agricultural work, and a density of at least 400 persons per sq km (census towns).
• Features of urban society (Wirth): large size, high density, heterogeneity; impersonal and secondary relations; division of labour and specialisation; formal social control; social mobility; individualism; nuclear families; rapid change; class more important than caste.
• Urbanisation – the process by which a growing share of population lives in urban areas.
• Causes of urbanisation: industrialisation, employment opportunities, education and health facilities, push factors in villages (poverty, landlessness), transport, government and service sector growth.
• Problems of urbanisation: slums, housing shortage, overcrowding, water shortage, pollution, traffic congestion, crime, unemployment, poor sanitation, loneliness and stress.
• Slum – an area with overcrowded, poor housing and lack of basic amenities. Dharavi in Mumbai is one of Asia's largest slums.
• Government measures: JNNURM (2005), Smart Cities Mission (2015), AMRUT (2015), PM Awas Yojana–Urban (2015), Swachh Bharat Mission (2014).
• Rural–urban continuum: Redfield said there is no sharp break; communities lie along a line from folk to urban.
• Rurbanisation – villages getting urban facilities while keeping rural features.

Important terms

• Urbanisation (नागरीकरण) – growth of the urban share of population.
• Urbanism – the urban way of life (Wirth).
• Metropolitan city – a city with a population of one million (10 lakh) or more (Census usage).
• Suburbanisation – growth of residential areas on the edges of cities.
• Migration – movement of people from one place to another, often rural to urban.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is urbanisation?

Urbanisation is the process in which the proportion of a country's population living in towns and cities increases, mainly due to migration and industrial growth.

Q2. Which three features of city life did Louis Wirth stress?

Wirth said the city is marked by large size, high density and heterogeneity of population. These create impersonal, secondary relations.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of urban society.

• Size, density, heterogeneity.
• Secondary relations.
• Occupational specialisation.
• Formal control; individualism.
• Mobility and fast change.
• Nuclear families.

Q4. Discuss the causes and problems of urbanisation in India.

• Causes: pull and push factors.
• Problems: slums, housing, water, pollution, traffic, crime, unemployment.
• Example: Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur.
• Government schemes.

Q5. Distinguish between rural and urban society.

• Use the table points.
• Add family type, caste vs class, religion, mobility.
• Mention rural–urban continuum.

Exam tip

Start every urban answer with Louis Wirth's three features — size, density, heterogeneity — and then build your points from them.

Quick summary

Urbanisation is the growth of towns and cities and the spread of the urban way of life. India's cities are growing fast because of industries, services and migration from villages. This growth brings opportunities but also problems such as slums, housing shortage, pollution, traffic and crime. This topic explains the causes and effects of urbanisation, major urban problems and the steps taken to solve them.

Key points

• Urbanisation – the increase in the share of population living in urban areas, along with changes in occupation, lifestyle and values.
• Census definition of an urban area (statutory and census towns): a place with a municipality/corporation, or with at least 5,000 people, 75% of male workers in non-farm work and a density of at least 400 per sq km.
• Trends: urban share rose from about 17% (1951) to 31.1% (Census 2011), i.e. about 37.7 crore people. Maharashtra is among the most urbanised large states (about 45% in 2011); Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur, Nashik and Aurangabad are major centres.
• Causes (push and pull factors): push – rural poverty, unemployment, small landholdings, drought, caste oppression; pull – jobs in industry and services, education, health facilities, better wages, attractions of city life.
• Louis Wirth (Urbanism as a Way of Life, 1938) – city life is marked by size, density and heterogeneity, leading to secondary, impersonal relations.
• Positive effects: economic growth, new jobs, spread of education, weakening of caste rules, women's mobility, modern values.
• Slums – about 6.5 crore people lived in slums in 2011; Dharavi in Mumbai is one of Asia's largest slums.
• Housing shortage and high rents.
• Water supply, sanitation and solid waste problems.
• Pollution – air, water and noise.
• Traffic congestion and transport problems.
• Crime, juvenile delinquency, drug addiction.
• Unemployment and the informal sector – street vendors and daily-wage workers with low security.
• Social problems – loneliness, breakdown of joint family, stress, neglect of the elderly.
• Urban problems:
• Over-urbanisation – city population grows faster than jobs and services.
• Government measures: 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992) for urban local bodies; JNNURM (2005); Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT and PM Awas Yojana–Urban (all 2015); Swachh Bharat Mission–Urban (2014); metro rail projects; slum rehabilitation schemes (SRA in Mumbai).

Important terms

• Urbanisation – growth of urban population and urban way of life.
• Urbanism – the typical way of life in cities.
• Slum – a crowded area with poor housing, sanitation and services.
• Over-urbanisation – urban growth beyond the capacity of jobs and services.
• Push–pull factors – reasons that drive people out of villages and attract them to cities.

Important thinkers and theories

• Louis Wirth – urbanism as a way of life.
• Georg Simmel – The Metropolis and Mental Life (1903): city life makes people reserved and calculating.
• Ernest W. Burgess – concentric zone model of city growth.

5 important questions

Q1. What is over-urbanisation?

It is a situation in which the urban population grows faster than the growth of jobs, housing and civic services, leading to slums and unemployment.

Q2. What percentage of India's population was urban in Census 2011?

About 31.1 percent (around 37.7 crore people).

Q3. Explain the causes of urbanisation in India.

• Push factors in villages.
• Pull factors in cities.
• Industrialisation and growth of services.
• Education, transport, communication.
• Government policy and new towns.

Q4. Discuss the major problems of urban areas in India.

• Slums and housing.
• Water, sanitation, waste and pollution.
• Traffic and transport.
• Crime, delinquency, addiction.
• Informal work and social isolation.

Q5. What measures have been taken to solve urban problems?

• 74th Amendment and urban local bodies.
• JNNURM, Smart Cities, AMRUT, PMAY-Urban, SBM-Urban.
• Slum rehabilitation; public transport (metro).
• Suggestions: planned growth of small towns, rural development to reduce migration.

Exam tip

Write the urban problems under clear sub-headings and add one Maharashtra example (Dharavi or Mumbai local trains) – this makes the answer concrete.