राज्यशास्त्र Political Science

Quick summary

The Indian National Movement was the long struggle (1885–1947) to free India from British rule. It moved through three main phases: the Moderate phase (1885–1905), which used petitions and constitutional methods; the Extremist phase (1905–1919), which demanded Swaraj through boycott and Swadeshi, alongside revolutionary groups; and the Gandhian phase (1919–1947), which made it a mass movement through non-violent Satyagraha. Its ideas – democracy, secularism, social justice – shaped the Constitution.

Key points

• Causes of nationalism: economic exploitation (drain of wealth – Dadabhai Naoroji), Western education and English language, social reform movements, press and literature, railways and communication, racial discrimination (Ilbert Bill controversy, 1883).
• Indian National Congress founded on 28 December 1885 in Bombay; A. O. Hume helped; first president W. C. Bonnerjee.
• Moderates (1885–1905): Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, M. G. Ranade. Methods: prayers, petitions, protests (the "3 Ps"); faith in British justice. Demands: more Indians in councils and services, reduction of military expenditure. Achievement: political awakening, economic critique of British rule.
• Extremists (1905–1919): Lal–Bal–Pal – Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal – and Aurobindo Ghosh. Tilak: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it." Methods: boycott, Swadeshi, national education, mass mobilisation.
• Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon started the Swadeshi movement. Surat Split (1907) divided Moderates and Extremists. Muslim League founded in 1906.
• Revolutionaries: Chapekar brothers (Pune, 1897), V. D. Savarkar (Abhinav Bharat), Khudiram Bose, Ghadar Party (1913), Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad (HSRA), Subhas Chandra Bose (INA).
• Home Rule Leagues (1916): Tilak and Annie Besant. Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress–League unity.
• Gandhian phase: Champaran (1917), Kheda (1918), Ahmedabad mill strike (1918); Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh (13 April 1919).
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): boycott of schools, courts, councils and foreign cloth, with the Khilafat issue; withdrawn after Chauri Chaura (February 1922).
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930): Purna Swaraj resolution at Lahore (1929); Dandi March / Salt Satyagraha (12 March – 6 April 1930); Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931); Round Table Conferences.
• Quit India Movement (8 August 1942): "Do or Die"; a mass uprising.
• Independence: Cabinet Mission (1946), Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947), independence on 15 August 1947 with Partition.

Important terms

• Swaraj – self-rule.
• Swadeshi – use of goods made in one's own country.
• Boycott – refusal to use foreign goods or institutions.
• Satyagraha – non-violent resistance based on truth.
• Drain theory – Naoroji's idea that Britain drained India's wealth.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who were the Moderates?

The early Congress leaders (1885–1905), such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta, who believed in British justice and used constitutional methods like petitions and speeches to get reforms.

Q2. What was the Surat Split?

At the Surat session of the Congress in 1907, the Congress split into Moderates and Extremists over methods and leadership.

Q3. Explain the contribution of the Moderates and Extremists to the national movement.

• Moderates: aims, methods, economic critique, achievements, limits.
• Extremists: Lal–Bal–Pal, Swaraj, boycott and Swadeshi.
• Comparison of the two.

Q4. Explain the Non-Cooperation Movement.

• Background: Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat.
• Programme: boycott and constructive work.
• Spread and Chauri Chaura; withdrawal.
• Importance: first all-India mass movement.

Q5. Assess Gandhi's role in the Indian National Movement.

• Satyagraha and early local movements.
• Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Quit India.
• Mass participation of peasants, women, workers.
• Social programmes: untouchability, khadi, Hindu–Muslim unity.

Exam tip

Learn the timeline table well; one date error in a long answer looks careless.

Quick summary

Between 1909 and 1947 the British passed a series of Acts that slowly gave Indians a share in government and finally independence. The Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley–Minto) introduced separate electorates; the Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu–Chelmsford) brought dyarchy in the provinces; the Government of India Act 1935 gave provincial autonomy and proposed an all-India federation; the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) set up the Constituent Assembly; and the Indian Independence Act 1947 ended British rule. Many features of our Constitution come from these Acts, especially the 1935 Act.

Key points

Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms)

• John Morley (Secretary of State) and Lord Minto (Viceroy).
• Enlarged the central and provincial legislative councils; members could discuss the budget and ask supplementary questions.
• An Indian was appointed to the Viceroy's Executive Council (Satyendra Prasanna Sinha).
• Separate electorates for Muslims – "communal representation"; Lord Minto is called the "father of communal electorate".

Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms)

• Based on the Montagu Declaration (August 1917): gradual development of "responsible government".
• Dyarchy in provinces: subjects divided into reserved (police, finance, law – under the Governor and his councillors) and transferred (education, health, local government – under ministers responsible to the legislature).
• Bicameral central legislature (Central Legislative Assembly and Council of State).
• Separation of central and provincial subjects; extended communal representation to Sikhs and others; a Public Service Commission was proposed (set up in 1926).
• Dyarchy failed because of the Governor's veto and lack of finance for ministers.

Simon Commission (1927) – all-British; boycotted ("Simon, go back"). Nehru Report (1928) – Indian draft constitution.

Government of India Act, 1935

• Longest Act: 321 sections and 10 schedules.
• Proposed an All-India Federation of provinces and princely states (never came into force because the princes did not join).
• Divided powers into Federal, Provincial and Concurrent lists.
• Provincial autonomy: dyarchy abolished in provinces; ministers responsible to provincial legislatures. Elections of 1937: Congress formed ministries in most provinces.
• Dyarchy at the centre (not implemented).
• Federal Court (1937), Reserve Bank of India (1935), extended franchise, bicameralism in some provinces.
• Nehru called it "a machine with strong brakes but no engine".

Cripps Mission (1942), Cabinet Mission (1946): rejected Pakistan, proposed a three-tier federation and a Constituent Assembly elected by provincial assemblies, and an interim government.

Indian Independence Act, 1947 (based on the Mountbatten Plan of 3 June 1947)

• Created two dominions, India and Pakistan, from 15 August 1947.
• Ended British paramountcy over princely states.
• Constituent Assemblies became sovereign and also worked as the legislatures.

Important terms

• Separate electorate – voters of a community elect only their own representatives.
• Dyarchy – double government; subjects split between officials and responsible ministers.
• Provincial autonomy – self-government in provinces through responsible ministers.
• Dominion – self-governing country within the Commonwealth.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is dyarchy?

Dyarchy, introduced in the provinces by the Act of 1919, divided provincial subjects into reserved subjects under the Governor and transferred subjects under Indian ministers responsible to the legislature.

Q2. Why is Lord Minto called the father of communal electorate?

Because the Act of 1909 under him gave Muslims separate electorates, where only Muslim voters elected Muslim members.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the Government of India Act, 1919.

• Background: Montagu Declaration.
• Dyarchy, bicameral centre, division of subjects, communal representation.
• Working and failure of dyarchy.

Q4. Explain the main provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 and its importance.

• Federation, three lists, provincial autonomy, dyarchy at centre, Federal Court, RBI.
• Working in 1937.
• Influence on the Constitution.

Q5. Trace the constitutional development of India from 1909 to 1947.

• 1909, 1919, Simon Commission, 1935, Cripps, Cabinet Mission, 1947.
• Trend: from consultation to responsible government to independence.

Exam tip

Remember: about 250 articles of our Constitution are said to draw on the 1935 Act; mention it when writing on its importance.

Quick summary

The Constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly between 9 December 1946 and 26 November 1949. It came into force on 26 January 1950. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was President of the Assembly and Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The Constitution drew on India's freedom struggle, British-era Acts, and the constitutions of many countries.

Key points

• The idea of a Constituent Assembly was first put forward by M. N. Roy (1934); the Congress demanded it officially in 1935.
• The Assembly was formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946). Members were indirectly elected by the provincial legislative assemblies; princely states sent nominees.
• Total planned strength was 389; after Partition it was reduced to 299.
• First meeting: 9 December 1946; Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was temporary (interim) president.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected permanent President on 11 December 1946.
• Objectives Resolution moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946, adopted on 22 January 1947. It later became the basis of the Preamble.
• Drafting Committee was set up on 29 August 1947 with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as Chairman. Other members included N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, K. M. Munshi, Mohammad Saadulla, B. L. Mitter (replaced by N. Madhava Rau) and D. P. Khaitan (replaced by T. T. Krishnamachari).
• B. N. Rau was the Constitutional Adviser.
• Important committees: Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee (Nehru), Provincial Constitution Committee and Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities (Sardar Patel).
• The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 (now celebrated as Constitution Day / Samvidhan Divas). It took 2 years, 11 months and 18 days.
• It came into force on 26 January 1950, chosen because on 26 January 1930 the Congress had celebrated Purna Swaraj Day.
• At adoption it had a Preamble, 395 articles, 22 parts and 8 schedules.
• Sources: Government of India Act 1935 (federal scheme, emergency provisions), UK (parliamentary system, rule of law), USA (fundamental rights, judicial review), Ireland (Directive Principles), Canada (strong centre), Australia (concurrent list), USSR (fundamental duties, added later), Weimar Germany (suspension of rights in emergency), South Africa (amendment procedure).
• Ambedkar is called the chief architect of the Constitution.

Important terms

• Constituent Assembly – body elected to frame a constitution.
• Objectives Resolution – statement of the aims of the Constitution.
• Drafting Committee – committee that prepared the draft.
• Constitution Day – 26 November.
• Republic Day – 26 January.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee?

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, set up on 29 August 1947. He is called the chief architect of the Indian Constitution.

Q2. Why is 26 January celebrated as Republic Day?

The Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950. The date was chosen because on 26 January 1930 the Congress had observed Purna Swaraj (complete independence) Day.

Q3. Describe the composition of the Constituent Assembly.

• Formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946.
• Indirectly elected by provincial assemblies.
• Seats allotted on population basis; communities represented.
• Princely states' representatives nominated.
• 389 seats planned; 299 after Partition.
• Leading members: Nehru, Patel, Ambedkar, Rajendra Prasad, Maulana Azad.

Q4. Explain the role of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in the making of the Constitution.

• Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
• Piloted the draft through the Assembly.
• Defended its provisions in debates.
• Ensured rights, social justice, safeguards for weaker sections.
• Warned about the contradictions of political and social equality (25 November 1949 speech).

Q5. Discuss the sources of the Indian Constitution.

• Government of India Act 1935.
• British Constitution.
• US Constitution.
• Irish Constitution.
• Canadian and Australian Constitutions.
• Others: Weimar, USSR, South Africa, France.

Exam tip

Learn the five key dates (9-12-1946, 13-12-1946, 29-8-1947, 26-11-1949, 26-1-1950) – they appear in almost every paper.

Quick summary

The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution. It states the source of authority (the people), the nature of the Indian state (Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic) and its aims (Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity). The Constitution has many salient features: it is the longest written constitution, partly rigid and partly flexible, federal with a unitary bias, and parliamentary, with fundamental rights and independent judiciary.

Key points

• The Preamble (प्रास्ताविका / उद्देशिका) is based on Nehru's Objectives Resolution.
• It begins with "We, the People of India" – the people are the source of authority.
• Sovereign – India is free from external control.
• Socialist – aims to reduce inequality; added by the 42nd Amendment (1976).
• Secular – the state has no official religion and treats all religions equally; also added in 1976.
• Democratic – government elected by the people.
• Republic – head of state (President) is elected, not hereditary.
• Aims: Justice (social, economic, political), Liberty (thought, expression, belief, faith, worship), Equality (status and opportunity), Fraternity (dignity of the individual and unity and integrity of the nation – "integrity" added in 1976).
• Date of adoption mentioned in the Preamble: 26 November 1949.
• Berubari case (1960): the Supreme Court said the Preamble is not part of the Constitution. Kesavananda Bharati case (1973): it held that the Preamble is part of the Constitution and can be amended, but its basic structure cannot be destroyed.
• Salient features of the Constitution:

1. Lengthiest written constitution.
2. Drawn from various sources.
3. Blend of rigidity and flexibility (Article 368).
4. Federal system with unitary bias.
5. Parliamentary form of government.
6. Fundamental Rights (Part III).
7. Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV).
8. Fundamental Duties (Part IVA, Article 51A).
9. Independent and integrated judiciary; judicial review.
10. Single citizenship.
11. Universal adult franchise (voting age reduced from 21 to 18 by the 61st Amendment, 1988).
12. Secular state.
13. Emergency provisions.
14. Three-tier government (after the 73rd and 74th Amendments, 1992).
15. Independent bodies like the Election Commission and CAG.

Important terms

• Preamble – introductory statement of the Constitution.
• Republic – state with an elected head.
• Secularism – equal respect for all religions; no state religion.
• Fraternity – feeling of brotherhood.
• Basic structure – core features that cannot be amended away.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the meaning of "Republic" in the Preamble?

It means that the head of the state, the President, is elected and not hereditary. All public offices are open to every citizen.

Q2. Which words were added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment?

The 42nd Amendment (1976) added "Socialist", "Secular" and "Integrity" to the Preamble.

Q3. Explain the key words of the Preamble.

• We, the People – source of authority.
• Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.
• Justice – social, economic, political.
• Liberty – thought, expression, belief, faith, worship.
• Equality – status and opportunity.
• Fraternity – dignity and unity.

Q4. Is the Preamble a part of the Constitution? Discuss.

• Berubari case (1960): not a part.
• Kesavananda Bharati (1973): is a part.
• Can be amended without changing basic structure.
• Amended once (1976).
• Not enforceable in court but helps interpretation.

Q5. Describe the salient features of the Indian Constitution.

• Lengthy written constitution.
• Rigid and flexible.
• Federal with unitary bias.
• Parliamentary government.
• Fundamental rights, DPSP, duties.
• Independent judiciary; single citizenship; adult franchise; secularism.

Exam tip

Write the Preamble's key words in the same order as the original text – examiners check accuracy.

Quick summary

Fundamental Rights are basic rights guaranteed to citizens (and some to all persons) in Part III (Articles 12–35) of the Indian Constitution. They protect individual liberty and equality against the state. They are justiciable, which means a person can go to court if they are violated. There are now six Fundamental Rights; the Right to Property was removed in 1978.

Key points

• Inspired by the US Bill of Rights. Part III is called the Magna Carta of India.
• Originally seven rights; the Right to Property (Article 31) was removed by the 44th Amendment (1978) and is now a legal right under Article 300A.
• 1. Right to Equality (Articles 14–18):
• Art. 14 – equality before law and equal protection of laws.
• Art. 15 – no discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
• Art. 16 – equality of opportunity in public employment.
• Art. 17 – abolition of untouchability.
• Art. 18 – abolition of titles.
• 2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22): Art. 19 gives six freedoms – speech and expression, peaceful assembly, association, movement, residence, profession. Art. 20 – protection in conviction for offences. Art. 21 – protection of life and personal liberty. Art. 21A – right to education for children of 6–14 years (86th Amendment, 2002). Art. 22 – protection against arbitrary arrest.
• 3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24): bans human trafficking, forced labour (begar) and employment of children below 14 in factories, mines and hazardous work.
• 4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28).
• 5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30): protect minorities' culture and their right to run educational institutions.
• 6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): right to move the Supreme Court. Dr. Ambedkar called it the "heart and soul" of the Constitution.
• Five writs: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto. High Courts issue writs under Article 226.
• Rights are not absolute; reasonable restrictions can be imposed. Some rights can be suspended during a national emergency, but Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended (44th Amendment).
• Supreme Court has widened Article 21 to include right to privacy (Puttaswamy, 2017), livelihood, clean environment, etc.

Important terms

• Justiciable – enforceable by courts.
• Writ – order of a court to enforce rights.
• Habeas Corpus – "to have the body"; release from illegal detention.
• Mandamus – "we command"; order to a public official to do a duty.
• Quo Warranto – "by what authority"; challenge to holding a public office.
• Prohibition / Certiorari – orders to lower courts to stop / send up a case.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the writ of Habeas Corpus?

Habeas Corpus means "to have the body". The court orders a detained person to be produced before it, and releases him if the detention is illegal.

Q2. Why did Dr. Ambedkar call Article 32 the "heart and soul" of the Constitution?

Because Article 32 gives the right to go directly to the Supreme Court to enforce Fundamental Rights. Without it, the other rights would have no protection.

Q3. Explain the Right to Equality.

• Article 14 to 18 with meaning.
• Equality before law.
• No discrimination; special provisions allowed.
• Equal opportunity in jobs; reservations.
• Untouchability abolished.
• Titles abolished (except military/academic).

Q4. Describe the Right to Freedom under Articles 19–22.

• Six freedoms of Article 19.
• Reasonable restrictions.
• Article 20 – no ex post facto law, no double jeopardy, no self-incrimination.
• Article 21 – life and liberty; wide interpretation.
• Article 21A – education.
• Article 22 – rights of arrested persons.

Q5. Explain the Right to Constitutional Remedies and the five writs.

• Article 32 – Supreme Court; Article 226 – High Courts.
• Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto.
• Meaning of each in one line.
• Protects all other rights.

Exam tip

Always quote article numbers – a Fundamental Rights answer without articles loses marks.

Quick summary

While making the Constitution, the Constituent Assembly debated hard questions: who is a citizen of India, how minorities should be protected, and whether there should be one civil law for all (Uniform Civil Code). The Assembly chose single citizenship (Articles 5–11), cultural and educational rights for minorities (Articles 29–30) instead of separate electorates, and placed the Uniform Civil Code in the Directive Principles (Article 44) rather than making it compulsory. These questions are still debated today.

Key points

Citizenship

• Partition and large migration made citizenship a difficult question at the start of the Republic.
• Articles 5–11 dealt with citizenship on 26 January 1950: by domicile and birth (Art. 5), migrants from Pakistan (Art. 6), migrants to Pakistan (Art. 7), persons of Indian origin abroad (Art. 8). Art. 11 gave Parliament power to make citizenship law.
• The Assembly debated jus soli (birth) vs jus sanguinis (descent) and accepted a broad, civic idea of citizenship, not based on religion.
• Citizenship Act, 1955: acquisition by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation and incorporation of territory; later amendments narrowed citizenship by birth (1986, 2003).
• Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019: faster citizenship for Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and Christians from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan who entered India on or before 31 December 2014. Its rules were notified in 2024; it has been both supported and criticised, and petitions are before the Supreme Court.

Minority rights

• The Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal Areas was chaired by Sardar Patel; H. C. Mookerjee chaired the Minorities Sub-Committee.
• Separate electorates were rejected; reservation of seats for religious minorities was also given up in 1949. Reservation was kept for SCs and STs.
• Rights given: freedom of religion (Arts. 25–28), protection of language, script and culture (Art. 29), right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions (Art. 30).
• Debate: minority rights as a guarantee of equal citizenship vs fear that special rights may divide the nation. Ambedkar said minorities must have faith in the majority and the majority must not discriminate.

Uniform Civil Code (UCC) vs personal laws

• Personal laws govern marriage, divorce, inheritance and adoption according to religion.
• Article 44: "The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India."
• In the Assembly, members like Minoo Masani, Hansa Mehta, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and K. M. Munshi supported a UCC for equality and national unity; members like Mohamed Ismail and Naziruddin Ahmad opposed it as interference in religion. Dr. Ambedkar defended it and said it would be applied carefully.
• Hindu Code Bills (1955–56) reformed Hindu personal law.
• Court cases: Shah Bano (1985), Sarla Mudgal (1995), Shayara Bano (2017) – instant triple talaq held unconstitutional.
• Goa has a common civil code from Portuguese times; Uttarakhand passed a UCC Act in 2024.
• Arguments for UCC: gender justice, equality, secularism, simpler laws. Against: religious freedom, cultural diversity, fear among minorities; the 21st Law Commission (2018) said it was "neither necessary nor desirable at this stage".

Important terms

• Domicile – permanent home in a territory.
• Personal law – religion-based family law.
• Uniform Civil Code – one family law for all citizens.
• Minority – a group smaller in number than the majority, by religion or language.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What does Article 44 say?

Article 44, a Directive Principle, says the State shall endeavour to secure a uniform civil code for citizens throughout India.

Q2. What are the educational rights of minorities?

Under Article 30, religious and linguistic minorities have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice, and the State shall not discriminate against them in giving aid.

Q3. Explain the Constituent Assembly debate on citizenship.

• Partition background.
• Articles 5–11; birth vs descent.
• Civic, secular idea of citizenship; Citizenship Act 1955 and later amendments.

Q4. Explain the constitutional provisions for minorities and the debate behind them.

• Patel's Advisory Committee; rejection of separate electorates.
• Arts. 25–30.
• Arguments on both sides.

Q5. Discuss the debate on the Uniform Civil Code versus personal laws.

• Meaning and Article 44.
• Assembly debate: supporters and opponents.
• Court cases and present position.
• Arguments for and against; conclusion.

Exam tip

Quote Article 44 exactly and name at least two court cases; that lifts an average UCC answer.

Quick summary

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP), in Part IV (Articles 36–51), are guidelines for the government to build a welfare state. They are not enforceable by courts but are "fundamental in the governance of the country". Fundamental Duties, in Part IVA (Article 51A), were added in 1976 and list the duties of every citizen.

Key points

• DPSP were borrowed from the Constitution of Ireland.
• Article 37: DPSP are not enforceable by any court, but it is the duty of the state to apply them in making laws.
• Dr. Ambedkar called them a "novel feature" of the Constitution.
• Classification of DPSP:

1. Socialist principles: adequate means of livelihood (Art. 39a), equal pay for equal work for men and women (39d), prevent concentration of wealth (39c), right to work, education and public help (41), just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief (42), living wage (43), free legal aid (39A).
2. Gandhian principles: village panchayats (Art. 40), cottage industries (43), prohibition of intoxicating drinks (47), protection of cows and improvement of cattle breeds (48), promotion of interests of weaker sections, SCs and STs (46).
3. Liberal-intellectual principles: Uniform Civil Code (Art. 44), early childhood care and education (45), organising agriculture and animal husbandry on modern lines (48), protection of environment (48A), protection of monuments (49), separation of judiciary from executive (50), promotion of international peace (51).

• Amendments: the 42nd Amendment (1976) added Articles 39A, 43A, 48A; the 44th added 38(2); the 86th Amendment (2002) changed Article 45.
• DPSP vs Fundamental Rights: FRs are justiciable, negative (limit the state), aim at political democracy; DPSP are non-justiciable, positive (direct the state), aim at social and economic democracy.
• In the Minerva Mills case (1980), the Supreme Court said the Constitution rests on the balance between Part III and Part IV.
• Fundamental Duties were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee, inspired by the USSR constitution.
• Originally 10 duties; the 11th (parents to provide education to children aged 6–14) was added by the 86th Amendment (2002).
• Examples of duties: respect the Constitution, National Flag and National Anthem; cherish the ideals of the freedom struggle; protect sovereignty, unity and integrity; defend the country; promote harmony and renounce practices derogatory to women; preserve composite culture; protect the environment; develop scientific temper; safeguard public property; strive for excellence.
• Duties are also non-justiciable.

Important terms

• Non-justiciable – not enforceable in a court.
• Welfare state – state that works for the social and economic well-being of all.
• Uniform Civil Code – common civil laws for all citizens.
• Scientific temper – rational, questioning attitude.
• Gandhian principles – DPSP reflecting Gandhi's ideas.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why are DPSP called non-justiciable?

Because under Article 37 no person can go to court to enforce them. However, they are fundamental in governance and the state must apply them in making laws.

Q2. Name any four Fundamental Duties.

Respect the Constitution, Flag and Anthem; protect the sovereignty and integrity of India; protect the natural environment; develop scientific temper and humanism.

Q3. Classify the Directive Principles of State Policy.

• Socialist – Articles 38, 39, 41, 42, 43.
• Gandhian – Articles 40, 43, 46, 47, 48.
• Liberal-intellectual – Articles 44, 45, 48A, 49, 50, 51.
• Examples for each.

Q4. Distinguish between Fundamental Rights and DPSP.

• Justiciable vs non-justiciable.
• Negative vs positive obligations.
• Political vs socio-economic democracy.
• Individual welfare vs community welfare.
• Source: USA vs Ireland.
• Courts now try to harmonise both (Minerva Mills).

Q5. Write a note on Fundamental Duties.

• Added in 1976 (42nd Amendment).
• Swaran Singh Committee.
• Article 51A; 11 duties.
• List of main duties.
• Importance: reminds citizens; balances rights.
• Criticism: non-justiciable, vague words.

Exam tip

Learn at least two article numbers for each class of DPSP – it makes your classification answer authentic.

Quick summary

India has a parliamentary system. The President is the constitutional (nominal) head of state, and the Prime Minister with the Council of Ministers is the real executive. The President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister (Article 74). The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

Key points

• President (Articles 52–62): head of the Union executive; all executive actions are taken in his name (Art. 53).
• Qualifications: citizen of India, at least 35 years old, qualified to be a Lok Sabha member, not holding an office of profit.
• Election (Art. 54–55): indirect, by an electoral college of elected members of both Houses of Parliament and elected members of State Legislative Assemblies (including Delhi and Puducherry). System of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote, secret ballot.
• Term: 5 years; can be re-elected. Impeachment (Art. 61) for "violation of the Constitution" by a two-thirds majority of the total membership of each House.
• Powers:
• Executive: appoints PM, ministers, Governors, judges, CAG, Chief Election Commissioner, Attorney General.
• Legislative: summons and prorogues Parliament, dissolves Lok Sabha, addresses Parliament, assent to bills, issues ordinances (Art. 123), nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha.
• Financial: money bills introduced only with his recommendation; Contingency Fund.
• Judicial: pardoning power (Art. 72).
• Emergency: national (Art. 352), state/President's Rule (Art. 356), financial (Art. 360).
• Veto powers: absolute, suspensive (return the bill once) and pocket veto (keeping a bill pending; used by President Zail Singh in 1986 on the Postal Bill).
• 44th Amendment (1978): the President can send advice back once for reconsideration, but must accept it afterwards. The 42nd Amendment (1976) had made advice binding.
• Vice-President (Art. 63–71): ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha; elected by members of both Houses of Parliament.
• Prime Minister (Art. 75): appointed by the President; usually the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha.
• Functions of the PM: forms the Council of Ministers and allocates portfolios; chairs the Cabinet; link between President and Cabinet (Art. 78); leader of the Lok Sabha (if member); chief spokesman of government; leads foreign policy; head of NITI Aayog and the National Development Council.
• Council of Ministers: Cabinet ministers, Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers. 91st Amendment (2003) limits its size to 15% of the Lok Sabha's strength.
• Collective responsibility (Art. 75(3)): the Council of Ministers stays in office only as long as it has the confidence of the Lok Sabha.

Important terms

• Nominal executive – head with formal powers (President).
• Real executive – PM and Council of Ministers.
• Ordinance – temporary law made by the President when Parliament is not in session.
• Pocket veto – keeping a bill pending indefinitely.
• Collective responsibility – ministers sink or swim together.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. How is the President of India elected?

By an electoral college of elected MPs of both Houses and elected MLAs of the states (and Delhi, Puducherry), through proportional representation by single transferable vote and secret ballot.

Q2. What is an ordinance?

An ordinance is a temporary law issued by the President under Article 123 when Parliament is not in session. It must be approved by Parliament within six weeks of its reassembly.

Q3. Explain the powers of the President of India.

• Executive powers.
• Legislative powers and veto.
• Financial powers.
• Judicial – pardon.
• Emergency powers.
• Position: constitutional head acting on ministerial advice.

Q4. Describe the position and functions of the Prime Minister.

• Appointment and leadership of majority.
• Forms and leads Council of Ministers.
• Link between President and Cabinet.
• Leader of Parliament and party.
• Foreign policy and national leader.
• "Keystone of the Cabinet arch" (Morley's description of the British PM).

Q5. Discuss the relationship between the President and the Prime Minister.

• Article 74 – aid and advice.
• Article 78 – duty to inform President.
• President's discretion: appointing PM in hung House, returning advice once, pocket veto.
• Mostly cooperative; occasional tension.
• Real power with PM in normal times.

Exam tip

Mention specific Articles (52, 54, 61, 72, 74, 75, 123, 352, 356, 360) – they give your answer a solid, exam-ready look.

Quick summary

Part XVIII of the Constitution (Articles 352–360) gives the Union special powers to deal with extraordinary situations. There are three types of emergency: National Emergency (Art. 352), State Emergency or President's Rule (Art. 356) and Financial Emergency (Art. 360). During an emergency the federal system becomes almost unitary and some Fundamental Rights can be suspended. The 44th Amendment (1978) added safeguards after the misuse of the 1975 emergency.

Key points

National Emergency (Art. 352)

• Grounds: war, external aggression or armed rebellion (the 44th Amendment replaced "internal disturbance" with "armed rebellion").
• Proclaimed by the President only on the written advice of the Union Cabinet (44th Amendment).
• Must be approved by both Houses within one month by a special majority; continues for six months at a time with fresh approval.
• Lok Sabha can pass a resolution to revoke it by a simple majority.
• Effects: Parliament can make laws on State List subjects; the Centre can give directions to states; the life of Lok Sabha can be extended by one year at a time; Art. 358 suspends Art. 19 automatically (only in case of war or external aggression); Art. 359 lets the President suspend the enforcement of other Fundamental Rights, except Articles 20 and 21.
• Proclaimed three times: 1962 (China war), 1971 (war with Pakistan), 1975 (internal disturbance, 25 June 1975 – March 1977).

President's Rule (Art. 356)

• When the President is satisfied, on the Governor's report or otherwise, that the government of a state cannot be carried on according to the Constitution.
• Art. 365: failure to follow Union directions can also be a ground.
• Approval by both Houses within two months by a simple majority; lasts six months at a time, maximum three years (continuation beyond one year needs a national emergency and the Election Commission's certificate).
• Effects: the President takes over the state executive (run by the Governor); Parliament or the President legislates for the state; the High Court is not affected.
• It has been used over 100 times, often misused for political reasons.
• S. R. Bommai case (1994): President's Rule is subject to judicial review; majority must be tested on the floor of the house; secularism is part of the basic structure.
• The Sarkaria Commission (1988) advised using it only as a last resort.

Financial Emergency (Art. 360)

• When the financial stability or credit of India is threatened.
• Approval within two months; no maximum period.
• Effects: Union can direct states on financial matters; salaries of government servants and even judges can be reduced; money bills of states can be reserved for the President.
• Never declared so far.

Criticism: danger to federalism and rights; misuse in 1975. Defence: necessary to protect unity and security (Ambedkar hoped Art. 356 would remain a "dead letter").

Important terms

• Proclamation – formal announcement of emergency by the President.
• President's Rule – central rule in a state under Art. 356.
• Special majority – majority of total membership and two-thirds of those present and voting.
• Dead letter – a provision that is never used.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. On what grounds can a National Emergency be declared?

On the ground of war, external aggression or armed rebellion, actual or threatened, on the written advice of the Union Cabinet.

Q2. Which Fundamental Rights cannot be suspended during an emergency?

Article 20 (protection in respect of conviction for offences) and Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty).

Q3. Explain the provisions and effects of National Emergency.

• Grounds, procedure, approval, duration.
• Effects on federalism, Parliament and rights (Arts. 358–359).
• Instances; 44th Amendment safeguards.

Q4. Explain President's Rule and discuss its misuse.

• Art. 356 and 365; procedure and duration.
• Effects.
• Misuse; Sarkaria Commission; Bommai judgment.

Q5. Critically examine the emergency provisions of the Indian Constitution.

• Three types in brief.
• Justification.
• Criticism and safeguards.
• Conclusion.

Exam tip

Mention the S. R. Bommai case in every answer on Art. 356; it is the most asked judgment on this topic.