इतिहास History

Quick summary

The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE) was the first large empire covering most of the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Kautilya (Chanakya). Its greatest ruler, Ashoka, is remembered for his policy of Dhamma after the Kalinga war. The empire had a strong, centralised administration.

Key points

• Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda dynasty of Magadha around 321 BCE. Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna).
• He defeated the Greek general Seleucus Nikator, who then sent Megasthenes as ambassador.
• According to Jain tradition, Chandragupta became a Jain and died at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
• Bindusara, his son, extended the empire to the south.
• Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE) fought the Kalinga war (c. 261 BCE). The bloodshed changed him; he adopted Buddhism and the policy of Dhamma.
• Dhamma meant moral conduct: respect for elders, kindness to servants and animals, tolerance of all sects, truthfulness and non-violence.
• Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamattas to spread Dhamma and sent missionaries abroad, including his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
• His edicts (rock and pillar) spread his message across the empire.
• The Lion Capital of Sarnath is India's national emblem; the wheel from it is on the national flag.
• Administration: king at the centre, council of ministers (mantriparishad), provinces under princes (kumaras), many departments under adhyakshas, a large army and a spy system.
• Land revenue was the main income, usually one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce.
• Decline: weak successors, huge expenses, provincial revolts, and finally the last king Brihadratha was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga (c. 185 BCE).

Important terms

• Dhamma – Ashoka's moral code for all people.
• Arthashastra – Kautilya's book on politics, economy and administration.
• Indica – Megasthenes' account of India.
• Mantriparishad – council of ministers.
• Samaharta – chief collector of revenue.
• Sannidhata – treasurer.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Megasthenes?

Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nikator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote Indica, describing Pataliputra and Mauryan society. Only parts survive through later writers.

Q2. What was the effect of the Kalinga war on Ashoka?

The huge killing in the Kalinga war filled Ashoka with remorse. He gave up war of conquest (digvijaya) and adopted dhamma-vijaya, conquest by moral law.

Q3. Explain Ashoka's Dhamma.

• A moral code, not a new religion.
• Respect for parents, elders, teachers.
• Kindness to slaves, servants, animals.
• Tolerance and respect for all sects.
• Non-violence; ban on some animal sacrifices.
• Spread through edicts, Dhamma Mahamattas and missions abroad.

Q4. Describe the Mauryan administration.

• Centralised monarchy; king as supreme head.
• Mantriparishad of ministers.
• Departments under adhyakshas (superintendents).
• Provinces under kumaras; districts and villages below.
• City administration of Pataliputra by committees (Megasthenes).
• Strong army and spy network; land revenue system.

Q5. Discuss the causes of the decline of the Mauryan Empire.

• Weak successors after Ashoka.
• Division of the empire.
• Financial burden of army and officials.
• Revolts in distant provinces.
• Some argue Ashoka's pacifist policy weakened the army (debated).
• Murder of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga.

Exam tip

For any Mauryan answer, quote both Arthashastra and Indica as sources – it shows you know where the facts come from.

Quick summary

After the Mauryas (c. 185 BCE), India split into several kingdoms. In the Deccan, the Satavahanas ruled with Pratishthan (Paithan, Maharashtra) as an important centre. In the north-west and north, the Kushanas built a large empire, with Kanishka as their greatest king. This period saw growth of trade, Buddhist art and new schools of sculpture.

Key points

• Post-Mauryan powers: Shungas and Kanvas in Magadha, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushanas in the north-west, and Satavahanas in the Deccan.
• Satavahanas (also called Andhras in the Puranas) were founded by Simuka.
• Their capital or main centre was Pratishthan (Paithan) on the Godavari; Amaravati and Dhanyakataka were also important.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest Satavahana king. He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana. His achievements are recorded in the Nashik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri.
• Satavahana kings used their mothers' names (matronymics), e.g. Gautamiputra, Vasishthiputra.
• They issued lead and potin coins and gave land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks.
• Satavahana period saw rock-cut caves at Karle, Nashik, Bhaja and Ajanta (early caves) in Maharashtra.
• King Hala is credited with the Gathasaptashati in Maharashtri Prakrit.
• Kushanas came from Central Asia (Yuezhi tribe). Kujula Kadphises founded the dynasty.
• Kanishka started the Shaka era in 78 CE (still used in the Indian national calendar). His capitals were Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura.
• Kanishka patronised Mahayana Buddhism and held the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir. Scholars Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra and Nagarjuna are linked with his age.
• Kushanas issued many gold coins.
• Art: Gandhara school (Greek influence, grey stone) and Mathura school (local red sandstone) of sculpture developed.
• Trade with Rome and Central Asia grew; the Silk Route passed through Kushana land.

Important terms

• Matronymic – naming after the mother, as Satavahana kings did.
• Gandhara art – Buddhist sculpture with Greek-Roman features.
• Mathura art – indigenous style using spotted red sandstone.
• Chaitya – Buddhist prayer hall; Vihara – monastery.
• Shaka era – era starting in 78 CE, linked with Kanishka.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Gautamiputra Satakarni?

He was the greatest Satavahana ruler. He defeated the Shaka king Nahapana and restored Satavahana power. The Nashik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri describes his achievements.

Q2. What is the Shaka era?

The Shaka era began in 78 CE and is generally linked to the Kushana king Kanishka. India's national calendar is based on it.

Q3. Describe the achievements of the Satavahanas.

• Ruled the Deccan for about four centuries.
• Defeated foreign Shakas under Gautamiputra.
• Encouraged trade through ports on the west coast.
• Land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhists.
• Rock-cut caves: Karle, Nashik, Bhaja.
• Prakrit literature, e.g. Gathasaptashati.

Q4. Write a note on Kanishka.

• Greatest Kushana king; capital Purushapura.
• Empire from Central Asia to the Ganga plains.
• Started the Shaka era (78 CE).
• Patron of Mahayana Buddhism; Fourth Council in Kashmir.
• Scholars: Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Charaka (traditionally).
• Gandhara and Mathura art flourished.

Q5. Compare Gandhara and Mathura schools of art.

• Gandhara: Greek-Roman influence, grey/blue-grey stone, wavy hair, realistic body.
• Mathura: indigenous, spotted red sandstone, smiling round face.
• Gandhara: mainly Buddhist themes.
• Mathura: Buddhist, Jain and Hindu images.
• Both made early images of the Buddha.

Exam tip

Students from Maharashtra should link the Satavahanas with local places – Paithan, Nashik, Karle – examiners like regional examples.

Quick summary

The Sangam Age (roughly 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) is the early historic period of the far south, known from a rich body of Tamil poetry. Three ruling families, the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas, controlled the region. Sangam poems describe kings, wars, farming, trade with Rome and the daily life of people in five kinds of landscape.

Key points

• Sangam means an assembly of poets. Tradition speaks of three Sangams held at Madurai under Pandya patronage; only works of the third survive.
• Literature: Tolkappiyam (grammar and poetics), Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies), Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls), and the Tirukkural of Tiruvalluvar (ethics). The epics Silappadikaram (Ilango Adigal) and Manimekalai (Sattanar) belong to the period just after.
• Cheras: Kerala coast; capital Vanji (Karur); emblem the bow. Senguttuvan started the worship of Kannagi (Pattini).
• Cholas: Kaveri delta; capitals Uraiyur and the port Puhar (Kaveripattinam); emblem the tiger. Karikala is credited with the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) on the Kaveri.
• Pandyas: capital Madurai; emblem the fish; patrons of the Sangam. Nedunjeliyan won the battle of Talaiyalanganam.
• Smaller chiefs called Velir also ruled.
• Tinai: poets described five landscapes – kurinji (hills), mullai (forest/pasture), marutam (farmland), neytal (coast) and palai (dry land), each with its own way of life.
• Poems are of two kinds: akam (inner – love) and puram (outer – war, kings, charity).
• Trade: pepper, pearls, muslin, ivory and gems went to Rome; gold coins came back. Ports: Muziris, Puhar, Korkai, Arikamedu (near Puducherry). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this trade, and Pliny complained of Roman gold drain.
• Society included bards (panar), farmers (vellalar), merchants and women poets like Avvaiyar. Murugan was a popular deity.

Important terms

• Sangam – an assembly of Tamil poets.
• Tinai – landscape-based poetic division of land and life.
• Akam / Puram – poems of inner life (love) / outer life (war, kingship).
• Velir – minor chieftains of the Sangam period.
• Muziris – a major port on the Kerala coast for Roman trade.

Important dates and people

• c. 3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE – Sangam period (dates are approximate).
• Karikala Chola – Kallanai dam on the Kaveri.
• Tiruvalluvar – Tirukkural.
• 1st century CE – Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

5 important questions

Q1. What is Tinai?

Tinai is the Sangam idea of five landscapes – hills, forests, farmland, coast and dry land. Each tinai had its own occupation, god and mood in poetry.

Q2. Name two Sangam-period ports.

Muziris (Kerala) and Puhar or Kaveripattinam (Chola country). Arikamedu and Korkai are other answers.

Q3. Describe Sangam literature as a source of history.

• Tolkappiyam, Ettuthogai, Pattuppattu, Tirukkural.
• Akam and puram poems.
• Information on kings, society, economy.
• Limits: dating, poetic exaggeration.

Q4. Write about the three kingdoms of the Sangam Age.

• Cheras: area, capital, emblem, Senguttuvan.
• Cholas: Karikala, Puhar, Kallanai.
• Pandyas: Madurai, Sangam, Nedunjeliyan.
• Constant rivalry.

Q5. Explain the economy and trade of the Sangam Age.

• Agriculture and irrigation.
• Crafts: weaving, pearls.
• Roman trade, ports, Roman coins.
• Arikamedu evidence.

Exam tip

Learn the three kingdoms as a table: capital, emblem, famous king. One small table answers most short questions.

Quick summary

The Gupta dynasty ruled north India from about 320 CE to the late 5th century CE. The period is often called the "Classical Age" because of great progress in literature, science, art and religion. Famous rulers were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

Key points

• Chandragupta I (c. 320 CE) is taken as the real founder. He married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, which raised his status. The Gupta era starts from 319–320 CE.
• Samudragupta was a great conqueror. His campaigns are described in the Allahabad (Prayag) Pillar inscription written by his court poet Harisena.
• He defeated kings of north India directly and made south Indian kings accept his overlordship, then returned their kingdoms. Historian V. A. Smith called him the "Napoleon of India".
• Samudragupta was also a poet and musician; coins show him playing the veena.
• Chandragupta II defeated the Shakas of western India, gaining ports and trade. He took the title Vikramaditya.
• He made a marriage alliance with the Vakatakas of the Deccan (his daughter Prabhavatigupta married Rudrasena II).
• Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India in his reign.
• Kumaragupta I is linked with the founding of Nalanda. Skandagupta fought the Hunas.
• Literature: Kalidasa (Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha), Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa), Shudraka (Mrichchhakatika). The Puranas took their final form.
• Science: Aryabhata (Aryabhatiya) said the earth rotates on its axis and explained eclipses; Varahamihira (Brihat Samhita); the decimal system and zero developed in this era.
• Art: Ajanta paintings (some caves of this period), Sarnath Buddha images, early stone temples like the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh; the iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) that does not rust.
• Religion: rise of Bhagavatism (Vaishnavism) and Shaivism; Buddhism and Jainism also continued.
• Decline: Huna invasions, weak successors, rise of feudatories, loss of trade.

Important terms

• Prashasti – praise inscription, e.g. Prayag Prashasti.
• Golden Age – term used by some historians for the Gupta period because of cultural progress; today it is used with caution.
• Agrahara – tax-free land grant to Brahmanas.
• Feudatory (samanta) – subordinate ruler.
• Dinara – Gupta gold coin.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why was Samudragupta called the "Napoleon of India"?

Because of his many successful military campaigns across north and south India, described in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Historian V. A. Smith gave him this title.

Q2. Name two scientists of the Gupta age.

Aryabhata, who wrote Aryabhatiya and said the earth rotates on its axis, and Varahamihira, who wrote Brihat Samhita.

Q3. Describe the achievements of Chandragupta II.

• Defeated the Shakas of western India.
• Gained western ports and trade.
• Marriage alliance with the Vakatakas.
• Title Vikramaditya; capital also at Ujjain (tradition).
• Patron of learning; Fa-Hien's account praises his rule.

Q4. Why is the Gupta age called the Classical Age?

• Peak of Sanskrit literature – Kalidasa.
• Science and mathematics – Aryabhata, zero, decimal.
• Art – Ajanta, Sarnath sculptures, temple building.
• Religious revival with tolerance.
• Prosperous trade and gold coins.
• Note: benefits mainly for upper classes; caste rigidity grew.

Q5. Discuss the causes of the decline of the Gupta Empire.

• Huna invasions.
• Weak later rulers.
• Rise of feudatories (Maukharis, Maitrakas).
• Fall in trade and gold coinage quality.
• Succession disputes.

Exam tip

In "Golden Age" questions, give both sides – achievements and limits – to score full marks.

Quick summary

The Vakatakas ruled the Deccan, with their heartland in Vidarbha, from the mid-3rd to the late 5th century CE. They were contemporaries and relatives of the Guptas. Their main branch ruled near present-day Nagpur and Ramtek, and their Vatsagulma (Washim) branch is linked with the later Ajanta caves. For students in Vidarbha this is local history.

Key points

• Vindhyashakti (c. 250 CE) founded the dynasty. The Puranas and the Ajanta inscription of Varahadeva mention him.
• Pravarasena I was the most powerful early king. He performed Vedic sacrifices including the Ashvamedha and Vajapeya, and was the only Vakataka to take the title Samrat.
• After him the kingdom split into two branches: the main (Nandivardhana–Pravarapura) branch in eastern Vidarbha and the Vatsagulma branch (Washim) in western Vidarbha.
• Main-branch capitals: Nandivardhana (Nagardhan, near Ramtek, Nagpur district) and later Pravarapura, identified by many scholars with Mansar near Ramtek, where excavations found a palace-temple complex.
• Rudrasena II married Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II. After his early death she ruled as regent for her young sons, which brought strong Gupta influence. Her copper-plate grants (e.g. the Poona plates) are key sources.
• Pravarasena II was a poet; he wrote the Prakrit poem Setubandha (also called Ravanavaho). He founded Pravarapura.
• Tradition links Kalidasa with the Vakataka court; the Ramagiri of his Meghaduta is commonly identified with Ramtek.
• Harishena (c. 475–500 CE) of the Vatsagulma branch was the greatest ruler. His minister Varahadeva dedicated Ajanta Cave 16, and many of the later Ajanta caves (including Cave 17) were made in his reign.
• Vakatakas were mainly Shaivas but supported Buddhist art.
• They used Sanskrit in copper-plate land grants and Maharashtri Prakrit in literature.
• After Harishena the dynasty declined; the Vishnukundins and later the Chalukyas took over the region.

Important terms

• Vatsagulma – present-day Washim, seat of the western Vakataka branch.
• Nandivardhana – Nagardhan near Ramtek, an early capital of the main branch.
• Regent – a person who rules on behalf of a child king.
• Setubandha – Prakrit poem on Rama building the bridge to Lanka.
• Copper-plate grant – a land grant inscribed on copper plates.

Important dates and people

• c. 250 CE – Vindhyashakti.
• c. 380s–390s CE – marriage of Rudrasena II and Prabhavatigupta (approximate).
• c. 475–500 CE – Harishena; later Ajanta caves.
• Varahadeva – minister of Harishena, Ajanta Cave 16 inscription.

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Prabhavatigupta?

She was the daughter of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II and the queen of Vakataka king Rudrasena II. She ruled as regent for her minor sons after her husband's death.

Q2. What is Setubandha?

A Prakrit poem by the Vakataka king Pravarasena II describing Rama's bridge to Lanka.

Q3. Trace the political history of the Vakatakas.

• Vindhyashakti and Pravarasena I.
• Two branches and their capitals.
• Gupta marriage and Prabhavatigupta's regency.
• Pravarasena II, Harishena; decline.

Q4. Describe the relations between the Vakatakas and the Guptas.

• Chandragupta II's diplomacy against the Shakas.
• Marriage alliance and regency.
• Cultural influence: Sanskrit grants, literature.
• Benefits to both.

Q5. Assess the cultural contribution of the Vakatakas.

• Literature: Setubandha; link with Kalidasa.
• Ajanta caves under Harishena.
• Temples and Mansar site near Ramtek.
• Patronage of both Shaiva and Buddhist faiths.

Exam tip

Always link the Vakatakas with Vidarbha places: Nagardhan, Ramtek, Mansar, Washim and Ajanta. Local examples impress RTMNU examiners.

Quick summary

After the Guptas, Harshavardhana (606–647 CE) ruled a large kingdom in north India from Thanesar and later Kanauj. In the south, three powers stand out: the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), the Pallavas of Kanchi, and later the Cholas of Thanjavur. These kingdoms built famous temples and spread Indian culture overseas.

Key points

• Harsha belonged to the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty of Thanesar. He became king in 606 CE and moved his capital to Kanauj.
• Our main sources: Banabhatta's Harshacharita and the travel account of Hiuen Tsang (Si-yu-ki).
• Harsha was defeated on the Narmada by Pulakeshin II of the Chalukyas. This is recorded in the Aihole inscription (written by Ravikirti).
• Harsha was a patron of Buddhism (Mahayana) and of Nalanda University. He held an assembly at Kanauj and a great distribution of gifts every five years at Prayag.
• Harsha himself wrote three Sanskrit plays: Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
• Chalukyas of Badami: Pulakeshin II was the greatest king. Chalukya temples at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal show early temple architecture.
• Pallavas of Kanchi: Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla). Narasimhavarman captured Vatapi and killed Pulakeshin II (c. 642 CE).
• Pallava art: rock-cut rathas and Shore Temple at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram); Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi.
• The long Chalukya–Pallava conflict shaped south Indian politics in the 7th century.
• Cholas (imperial Cholas from 9th century): Vijayalaya founded the line; Rajaraja I built the Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur; Rajendra I sent a naval expedition to South-East Asia and took the title "Gangaikonda".
• Chola village self-government is known from the Uttaramerur inscriptions; village assemblies (ur, sabha) managed local affairs.
• Temple style of the south is called Dravida, with tall gateways (gopurams) and pyramid-like towers (vimanas).

Important terms

• Harshacharita – Banabhatta's biography of Harsha.
• Ratha – monolithic rock-cut temple shaped like a chariot.
• Dravida style – south Indian temple style.
• Ur / Sabha – Chola village assemblies.
• Mahamandapa – large pillared hall of a temple.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Hiuen Tsang?

Hiuen Tsang was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who came to India in Harsha's reign. He studied at Nalanda and wrote an account of India, which is an important source for Harsha's time.

Q2. What is the importance of the Aihole inscription?

It was composed by Ravikirti for Pulakeshin II. It records Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha and is also an example of fine Sanskrit poetry.

Q3. Describe the achievements of Harshavardhana.

• United north India after the Guptas.
• Capital at Kanauj.
• Patron of Buddhism and Nalanda.
• Assemblies at Kanauj and Prayag.
• Writer of three Sanskrit plays.
• Failure: defeat by Pulakeshin II limited him to the north.

Q4. Write a note on Pallava art and architecture.

• Rock-cut cave temples of Mahendravarman.
• Monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram (Narasimhavarman).
• Shore Temple and Kailasanatha temple (Rajasimha).
• Large rock relief "Descent of the Ganga / Arjuna's Penance".
• Laid foundation of the Dravida style.

Q5. Describe the Chola administration with special reference to local self-government.

• King at the top, helped by ministers.
• Empire divided into mandalams, valanadus, nadus and villages.
• Village assemblies: ur (common villages), sabha (Brahmana villages).
• Uttaramerur inscriptions describe election by lot (kudavolai) and committees (variyams).
• Assemblies managed tanks, temples, roads and taxes.

Exam tip

Always link a ruler with his monument (Rajaraja – Brihadeshvara; Narasimhavarman – Mamallapuram). One correct example earns quick marks.

Quick summary

From the 8th to the 12th century much of north and west India was ruled by Rajput clans. Historians debate their origin. The most powerful early Rajput dynasty was the Gurjara-Pratiharas, who also resisted the Arabs, and the most famous later one was the Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Ajmer under Prithviraj III. Other clans included the Paramaras, Solankis and Chandelas.

Key points

• Theories of origin:

1. Agnikula theory – Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Raso says four clans (Pratihara, Chalukya/Solanki, Paramara, Chahamana) were born from a sacred fire at Mount Abu.
2. Foreign origin – Colonel James Tod and V. A. Smith linked them with Hunas, Gurjaras and other Central Asian groups who were absorbed into Indian society.
3. Indigenous Kshatriya origin – C. V. Vaidya and G. H. Ojha held that Rajputs descended from ancient Kshatriyas.
4. Most historians now see them as a mixed group of old Kshatriya families, local chiefs and absorbed newcomers who rose to power through land and warfare.

• Gurjara-Pratiharas: Nagabhata I (8th century) stopped Arab advances from Sind. Nagabhata II captured Kanauj (c. 816). Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885), called Adivaraha, was the greatest; Arab merchant Sulaiman praised his cavalry and his hostility to the Arabs. Poet Rajashekhara lived at Mahendrapala's court.
• Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Shakambhari (Sambhar) and Ajmer: Ajayaraja founded Ajmer (Ajayameru) in the early 12th century. Vigraharaja IV (Visaladeva) took Delhi from the Tomaras and wrote the play Harikeli Nataka.
• Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chauhan) defeated Muhammad Ghori at the First Battle of Tarain (1191) but lost the Second Battle of Tarain (1192), which opened north India to Turkish rule.
• Paramaras of Malwa (capital Dhar): Raja Bhoja, a great scholar-king. Solankis (Chalukyas) of Gujarat: Dilwara temple at Mount Abu (Vimala Vasahi). Chandelas of Bundelkhand built Khajuraho.
• Rajput polity: clan-based, feudal; chiefs held land in return for military service. Strong ideals of honour and courage, but constant mutual wars weakened them.

Important terms

• Agnikula – "fire-born" clans in the bardic legend.
• Samanta – a feudal chief serving an overlord.
• Kanauj – the prize city of north India in this period.
• Adivaraha – title of Mihira Bhoja, a form of Vishnu.

Important dates and people

• c. 816 – Nagabhata II takes Kanauj.
• c. 836–885 – Mihira Bhoja.
• 1191 – First Battle of Tarain (Prithviraj wins).
• 1192 – Second Battle of Tarain (Muhammad Ghori wins).
• Chand Bardai – court poet, Prithviraj Raso.

5 important questions

Q1. What is the Agnikula theory?

A bardic legend in Prithviraj Raso that the Pratihara, Chalukya, Paramara and Chahamana clans were born from a sacrificial fire on Mount Abu.

Q2. Who won the Second Battle of Tarain?

Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192.

Q3. Discuss the theories of the origin of the Rajputs.

• Agnikula legend.
• Foreign origin (Tod, Smith).
• Indigenous Kshatriya (Vaidya, Ojha).
• Mixed origin – modern view.
• Conclusion.

Q4. Write an account of the Gurjara-Pratiharas.

• Nagabhata I and the Arabs.
• Kanauj and the tripartite struggle.
• Mihira Bhoja, Mahendrapala.
• Culture and decline.

Q5. Describe the achievements of the Chahamanas of Ajmer.

• Ajayaraja and Ajmer.
• Vigraharaja IV: Delhi, literature.
• Prithviraj III: Tarain battles.
• Causes of Rajput defeat.

Exam tip

For origin questions, give each theory with its scholar's name, then end with the modern "mixed origin" view.

Quick summary

From about 750 to 950 CE three powers fought for control of Kanauj, the old imperial city of Harsha: the Palas of Bengal, the Gurjara-Pratiharas of western India and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. This long contest is called the Tripartite Struggle. It brought glory to each power for a time but exhausted all three.

Key points

• Why Kanauj? It was Harsha's capital, a symbol of supremacy over north India; it controlled the fertile Ganga–Yamuna doab and trade routes.
• Palas: Gopala (c. 750) was chosen by nobles to end anarchy (matsyanyaya). Dharmapala put his nominee Chakrayudha on the Kanauj throne and founded Vikramashila university. Devapala extended Pala power. The Palas were great patrons of Buddhism (Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri).
• Pratiharas: Vatsaraja fought both rivals; Nagabhata II defeated Chakrayudha and took Kanauj (c. 816); Mihira Bhoja made it his capital and held it firmly.
• Rashtrakutas: Dantidurga (c. 753) overthrew the Chalukyas of Badami. Krishna I built the rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora. Dhruva and Govinda III raided the north and defeated both Palas and Pratiharas but did not stay. Amoghavarsha I ruled from Manyakheta (Malkhed) and is credited with the Kannada work Kavirajamarga. Indra III sacked Kanauj (c. 916). Krishna III defeated the Cholas at Takkolam (949).
• The Rashtrakutas had roots in the Deccan; their power centred on present-day Maharashtra and Karnataka.
• Phases: 1) Vatsaraja–Dharmapala–Dhruva clash; 2) Nagabhata II–Dharmapala–Govinda III; 3) Pratihara control under Bhoja; 4) Rashtrakuta raids under Indra III.
• Result: the Pratiharas held Kanauj longest, but all three were weakened. This helped new regional powers rise and left north India open to the attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Arab writers called the Rashtrakuta king Balhara (from Vallabharaja) and described his kingdom as one of the great powers of the world.

Important terms

• Matsyanyaya – "law of the fishes"; anarchy where the strong eat the weak.
• Tripartite Struggle – the three-way contest for Kanauj.
• Manyakheta – Rashtrakuta capital (Malkhed, Karnataka).
• Vikramashila – Buddhist university founded by Dharmapala.

Important dates and people

• c. 750 – Gopala becomes Pala king.
• c. 753 – Dantidurga founds Rashtrakuta power.
• c. 816 – Nagabhata II captures Kanauj.
• c. 916 – Indra III sacks Kanauj.
• 949 – Battle of Takkolam.

5 important questions

Q1. Who built the Kailasa temple at Ellora?

The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (8th century CE).

Q2. What does matsyanyaya mean?

"The law of the fishes" – a state of anarchy in which the strong destroy the weak. It describes Bengal before Gopala.

Q3. Explain the causes of the Tripartite Struggle.

• Prestige of Kanauj.
• Economic value of the doab.
• Ambition of the three dynasties.
• No single strong power after Harsha.

Q4. Describe the course and results of the Tripartite Struggle.

• Three or four phases with kings.
• Pratihara success.
• Exhaustion of all three; opening for the Turks.

Q5. Write a note on the Rashtrakutas.

• Dantidurga, Krishna I, Dhruva, Govinda III.
• Amoghavarsha I and literature.
• Ellora, Arab accounts.
• Decline (c. 973).

Exam tip

Draw a three-column chart (Pala / Pratihara / Rashtrakuta) with the kings who clashed in each phase. It makes a confusing topic clear.

Quick summary

The early medieval period (c. 600–1200 CE) saw big changes in Indian society and culture. Land grants created a feudal order, castes multiplied, and Puranic Hinduism with temple worship and bhakti grew strong while Buddhism declined. This age also produced India's great temple styles: Nagara in the north, Dravida in the south and Vesara in the Deccan.

Key points

• Feudalism: kings gave land grants (agrahara, brahmadeya) to Brahmins, temples and officials. Local samantas gained power. Historian R. S. Sharma called this "Indian feudalism"; others see it as state formation in new regions.
• Society: many new jatis formed; Rajputs rose as a warrior group; the status of women declined (early marriage, fewer rights), though royal women like the Kakatiya Rudramadevi (13th century) show exceptions.
• Religion: Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shakti worship spread; Tantra grew in Buddhism (Vajrayana) and Hinduism. Buddhism declined in most regions except Bengal–Bihar under the Palas. Jainism remained strong in Karnataka and Gujarat.
• Adi Shankaracharya (traditionally 788–820 CE) taught Advaita Vedanta and set up four mathas (Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, Jyotirmath).
• Bhakti in the south: the 12 Vaishnava Alvars and the 63 Shaiva Nayanars (6th–9th centuries) sang devotional hymns in Tamil, open to all castes and women (e.g. Andal).
• Regional languages grew: Kannada (Kavirajamarga), Telugu, Tamil; the earliest Marathi inscriptions appear in this period.
• Nagara style: curved tower (shikhara) over the sanctum. Examples: Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho (Chandela); Lingaraja, Bhubaneswar; Sun Temple, Konark (13th century).
• Dravida style: pyramid-shaped tower (vimana), large gateways (gopurams) and enclosure walls. Example: Brihadeeswara temple, Thanjavur (Rajaraja I, c. 1010).
• Vesara style: a mix of both, seen in the Deccan – Chalukya temples at Pattadakal, later Hoysala temples.
• Rock-cut architecture: Kailasa temple, Ellora (Rashtrakuta) is carved from a single rock. In Maharashtra, the Ambarnath Shiva temple (1060 CE, Shilaharas) is a fine example of the Bhumija style.

Important terms

• Agrahara – a village granted to Brahmins.
• Samanta – a feudal chief.
• Shikhara / Vimana – north / south Indian temple tower.
• Gopuram – monumental gateway of a south Indian temple.
• Advaita – non-dualism: Brahman and Atman are one.

Important dates and people

• 6th–9th centuries – Alvars and Nayanars.
• 788–820 CE – Shankaracharya (traditional dates).
• c. 1010 – Brihadeeswara temple, Thanjavur.
• c. 1030 – Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho (approx.).
• 1060 – Ambarnath temple.

5 important questions

Q1. Who were the Alvars and Nayanars?

Tamil devotional saints: the Alvars worshipped Vishnu and the Nayanars worshipped Shiva. Their hymns started the bhakti movement in the south.

Q2. Name the three styles of Indian temple architecture.

Nagara (north), Dravida (south) and Vesara (Deccan, mixed).

Q3. Describe social conditions in early medieval India.

• Feudal land grants and samantas.
• Growth of castes and the Rajputs.
• Position of women.
• Village economy.

Q4. Explain the religious developments of the early medieval period.

• Puranic Hinduism and temples.
• Tantra; decline of Buddhism.
• Shankaracharya.
• Alvars and Nayanars.

Q5. Compare the Nagara and Dravida styles of temple architecture with examples.

• Plan and tower shape.
• Gopuram and enclosure in Dravida.
• Examples from Khajuraho, Bhubaneswar, Thanjavur.
• Vesara as a mixed style.
• A labelled table works well.

Exam tip

In temple questions, write one named temple for each style with its builder dynasty. A small comparison table impresses examiners.