Reading comprehension means reading a passage and understanding it fully: the main idea, the details, the writer's purpose and the meaning of new words. In university exams you get an unseen passage followed by questions. A clear method makes these questions easy marks.
Key points
Read the passage once quickly to get the main idea (gist). Then read it again slowly.
Read the questions before the second reading, so you know what to look for.
The main idea is often in the first or last sentence of a paragraph (the topic sentence).
Separate facts (can be checked) from opinions (the writer's views).
Guess the meaning of a new word from the words around it (context clues).
Answer in your own words. Do not copy whole sentences from the passage.
Keep answers short and to the point; use complete sentences.
For a title, choose a short phrase that covers the whole passage, not one detail.
For "true or false" items, find the exact line that proves your answer.
Inference questions ask what the writer suggests but does not say directly.
Important terms
Gist – the general meaning of a passage in a sentence or two.
Skimming – reading quickly to get the overall idea.
Scanning – looking quickly for one specific fact, name, date or number.
Inference – a conclusion you reach from clues in the text.
Topic sentence – the sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph.
Tone – the writer's attitude, for example serious, humorous, critical or hopeful.
Context clue – a hint in nearby words that explains a difficult word.
Language study
Synonym questions: replace the word in the sentence with your answer and check that the sentence still makes sense. Example: "The villagers were jubilant after the rain" → happy, joyful.
Antonym questions: give a word of the same part of speech. The antonym of ancient (adjective) is modern (adjective), not modernity.
Words like however, but, although show contrast; therefore, so, as a result show result; for example, such as introduce examples. These signal words help you follow the argument.
Q1. What is the difference between skimming and scanning?
Skimming is fast reading to get the general idea of a passage. Scanning is fast searching for one particular piece of information, such as a date or a name. We skim a newspaper article; we scan a timetable.
Q2. How can you find the meaning of an unknown word in a passage?
Look at the words and sentences around it (context). Check if there is a definition, an example, a synonym or a contrast nearby. Also break the word into prefix, root and suffix.
Q3. Explain the steps you follow to answer an unseen passage.
Skim the passage for the gist.
Read all the questions carefully.
Read the passage again and underline lines that answer each question.
Answer in your own words, in full sentences.
Do the vocabulary questions using context.
Give a suitable title that covers the whole passage.
Revise your answers for grammar and spelling.
Q4. What is an inference question? Explain with an example.
It asks for a meaning that is suggested, not stated.
You must join clues from the text.
Example: "Ravi kept looking at the clock and tapping his foot." Inference: Ravi was impatient or nervous.
Always support your inference with a line from the passage.
Q5. How do you choose a suitable title for a passage?
Find the central idea that runs through all paragraphs.
Keep the title short (2–6 words) and clear.
Avoid titles that cover only one example or one paragraph.
The title may be a phrase, e.g. "Saving Our Rivers", rather than a full sentence.
Exam tip
Never leave a comprehension answer as a copied paragraph. Short answers in your own words, with correct grammar, get full marks.
Vocabulary Building: Synonyms, Antonyms and Word Formation
Quick summary
A good vocabulary helps you read faster, write clearly and score in "do as directed" questions. This topic covers synonyms and antonyms, prefixes and suffixes, and the main ways new English words are formed. University papers ask you to give synonyms or antonyms, form new words, and identify the word-formation process.
Key points
A synonym is a word with the same or nearly the same meaning: big – large, begin – start.
An antonym is a word with the opposite meaning: rich – poor, accept – reject.
Very few synonyms are exact; choose the one that fits the context. "A tall building" is natural, "a high man" is not.
Antonyms are often made by adding a negative prefix: happy – unhappy, possible – impossible, legal – illegal, regular – irregular, honest – dishonest.
A prefix is added at the beginning of a word and usually changes the meaning: re- (again), pre- (before), mis- (wrongly), over- (too much).
A suffix is added at the end and often changes the word class: kind → kindness (noun), beauty → beautiful (adjective), quick → quickly (adverb), modern → modernise (verb).
Compounding joins two words: class + room = classroom; black + board = blackboard.
Compounding: two free words joined (sunflower, railway).
Clipping: shortening (advertisement → ad).
Blending: parts of two words (motor + hotel = motel).
Acronyms: first letters (NATO, radar).
Borrowing: taking words from other languages (bungalow, jungle, pyjama from Indian languages).
Conversion: a word changes class without change of form (to email someone, a walk).
Q5. What are collocations? Why are they important?
Collocations are words that are commonly used together: fast food, take a photo, pay attention.
Wrong pairs sound unnatural: "do a mistake" ✗ → "make a mistake" ✓.
They make speech and writing natural and fluent.
Learn them in groups: make (a decision, a plan, progress), do (work, a favour, your duty).
Exam tip
When giving synonyms, write a word of the same part of speech as the given word. For antonyms, check the correct prefix (il- before l, ir- before r, im- before p/m/b).
Every word in an English sentence does a job. Grammar groups words into eight parts of speech according to that job. Knowing them helps you build correct sentences and answer "identify the part of speech" questions.
Key points
The eight parts of speech are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Some grammars add determiners (a, an, the, this, some) as a separate class.
A word's part of speech depends on its use in the sentence. "Light the lamp" (verb); "a light bag" (adjective); "the light is bright" (noun).
Nouns and pronouns usually act as subjects and objects.
The verb is the heart of the sentence; every complete sentence needs one.
Adjectives describe nouns; adverbs describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
Prepositions show the relation of a noun to another word (in, on, at, under).
Conjunctions join words or clauses (and, but, because, although).
Important terms
Noun – name of a person, place, thing or idea: Pune, teacher, honesty.
Pronoun – word used in place of a noun: he, she, it, they, who.
Adjective – describes a noun: a tall tree, three books.
Verb – shows action or state: run, write, is, seem.
Adverb – tells how, when, where or how much: slowly, today, here, very.
Preposition – shows relation: The pen is on the table.
Conjunction – joins words or clauses: tea and coffee; I stayed because it rained.
Coordinating conjunctions can be remembered as FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Many adverbs end in -ly, but not all: fast, hard, well, soon.
5 important questions
Q1. Identify the parts of speech in: "Alas! The old man walked slowly to the temple."
Alas – interjection; The – determiner (article); old – adjective; man – noun; walked – verb; slowly – adverb; to – preposition; the – determiner; temple – noun.
Q2. Show with examples how one word can be different parts of speech.
"Fast": He runs fast (adverb); a fast train (adjective); She kept a fast on Monday (noun); They fast during Ramzan (verb).
Q3. What is a noun? Explain its kinds with examples.
A noun names a person, place, thing or idea.
Proper noun: a particular name – Sachin, Godavari.
Common noun: a general name – boy, river.
Collective noun: a group – army, flock, class.
Material noun: a substance – iron, milk, cotton.
Abstract noun: a quality or idea – truth, freedom, childhood.
Q4. Distinguish between an adjective and an adverb.
An adjective qualifies a noun or pronoun: a careful driver.
An adverb modifies a verb, adjective or adverb: He drives carefully.
Adjectives answer "what kind / how many / which"; adverbs answer "how / when / where / how much".
Some words work as both: early bird (adj.); came early (adv.).
Q5. Explain conjunctions and prepositions with examples.
A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun and shows its relation: The cat sat under the chair.
A conjunction joins words, phrases or clauses: Ram and Shyam; I was late because the bus broke down.
"Before" and "after" can be both: before lunch (preposition); before you leave (conjunction, because a clause follows).
Exam tip
Always decide the part of speech from the word's job in that sentence, not from memory of the word alone.
Articles (a, an, the) and prepositions (in, on, at, by, for, since…) are small words, but they cause the most common errors in student writing. This topic explains when to use each article and the correct use of common prepositions of time, place and direction. Questions usually ask you to fill in the blanks or correct errors.
Key points
A and an are indefinite articles; they are used with singular countable nouns mentioned for the first time or in a general sense.
Use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound: a university, a one-rupee coin, an hour, an MLA, an honest man.
The is the definite article; it points to a particular or already known thing: Close the door.
Use the with unique things (the sun, the earth), rivers, seas and oceans (the Godavari, the Arabian Sea), mountain ranges (the Himalayas), holy books (the Gita), superlatives (the best), ordinals (the first), and musical instruments (play the flute).
Do not use an article with names of people, cities, most countries, languages, meals and plural/uncountable nouns used generally: Honesty is the best policy. Exceptions with countries: the USA, the UK.
At is used for an exact time and a point: at 6 o'clock, at the station.
On is used for days and dates and surfaces: on Monday, on 15 August, on the table.
In is used for months, years, seasons, parts of the day and enclosed spaces: in May, in 2024, in the morning, in the room.
Since goes with a point of time, for with a period: since 2019, for five years.
Between is for two, among for more than two.
Into shows movement inside; in shows position: He jumped into the well. He is in the well.
Some verbs and adjectives take fixed prepositions: depend on, good at, afraid of, interested in, married to, angry with a person / at a thing.
Important terms
Article – a word that limits a noun (a, an, the).
Indefinite article – a/an, for any one person or thing.
Definite article – the, for a particular person or thing.
Zero article – no article used before a noun.
Preposition – a word that shows the relation of a noun or pronoun with another word.
Fixed preposition – a preposition that always follows a certain word.
Language study
Preposition
Time
Place
at
at 7 a.m., at noon, at night
at the gate, at home
on
on Sunday, on 26 January
on the wall, on the bus
in
in June, in 2025, in summer
in Nagpur, in the box
by
by Friday (not later than)
by the river (near)
till/until
till evening
—
5 important questions
Q1. Fill in the blanks with a, an or the: (a) He is ___ honest man. (b) She is ___ European. (c) ___ Ganga is a holy river.
(a) an (silent h) (b) a (sounds "yoo") (c) The (river names take "the").
Q2. Correct the sentence: "He has been ill since three days."
"He has been ill for three days." For is used with a period of time.
Q3. Explain the uses of the definite article "the" with examples.
Something already mentioned: I saw a dog. The dog was hungry.
Unique objects: the sun, the moon, the sky.
Rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges: the Krishna, the Indian Ocean, the Satpuras.
Superlatives and ordinals: the tallest boy, the second chapter.
A class as a whole: The cow is a useful animal.
Musical instruments and newspapers: plays the sitar; reads the Lokmat.
In = position (She is in the hall); into = movement (She ran into the hall).
Between = two (between Pune and Mumbai); among = more than two (sweets among the children).
Since = point of time (since Monday); for = length of time (for a week).
All three pairs are often tested in error correction.
Q5. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions.
(a) She is good ___ maths. (b) The train arrives ___ 5 p.m. (c) We depend ___ farmers. (d) He was born ___ 2005. (e) The book is ___ the table. Answers: (a) at (b) at (c) on (d) in (e) on.
Exam tip
For a/an, say the word aloud: the first sound decides, not the first letter. For prepositions, learn the fixed pairs (afraid of, fond of, proud of, superior to) by heart.
Tense shows the time of an action: present, past or future. Each time has four forms (aspects): simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous, which gives twelve tense forms. Correct tense use is tested in "do as directed" and error-correction questions.
Key points
Three times × four aspects = 12 tense forms.
Simple shows a habit, fact or completed single action.
Continuous (progressive) shows an action in progress: be + verb-ing.
Perfect shows an action completed before a point of time: have/has/had + past participle.
Perfect continuous shows an action that started earlier and is still going on (or went on for some time): have been/had been + verb-ing.
In simple present, a third-person singular subject takes -s/-es: She writes.
Use simple past with definite past time words (yesterday, in 2020, last week), not present perfect.
Use present perfect with already, yet, just, ever, never, since, for (time up to now).
Since is used with a point of time (since 2019); for with a period of time (for three years).
Stative verbs (know, like, believe, own) are not normally used in continuous form.
Important terms
Tense – verb form showing time.
Aspect – whether the action is complete, ongoing, or both.
Auxiliary verb – helping verb: be, have, do, will.
Past participle – third form of the verb: written, gone, played.
Stative verb – verb showing a state, not an action.
Language study
Tense
Structure
Example
Simple present
V1 / V1+s
He reads daily.
Present continuous
is/am/are + V-ing
He is reading now.
Present perfect
has/have + V3
He has read the book.
Present perfect continuous
has/have been + V-ing
He has been reading since 6 a.m.
Simple past
V2
He read it yesterday.
Past continuous
was/were + V-ing
He was reading when I came.
Past perfect
had + V3
He had read it before the test.
Past perfect continuous
had been + V-ing
He had been reading for an hour.
Simple future
will + V1
He will read tomorrow.
Future continuous
will be + V-ing
He will be reading at 8 p.m.
Future perfect
will have + V3
He will have read it by Monday.
Future perfect continuous
will have been + V-ing
By May he will have been studying here for a year.
5 important questions
Q1. Correct the sentence: "I have seen him yesterday."
"I saw him yesterday." A definite past time (yesterday) needs the simple past, not the present perfect.
Q2. Fill in with since or for: (a) She has lived here ___ 2015. (b) It has rained ___ two hours.
(a) since (a point of time). (b) for (a period of time).
Q3. Explain the uses of the simple present tense with examples.
Habits: I walk every morning.
Universal truths: The sun rises in the east.
Fixed timetables: The train leaves at 6 p.m.
Headlines and commentary: India wins the match.
In time and condition clauses for the future: If it rains, we will stay home.
Q4. Distinguish between the simple past and the present perfect.
Simple past: action finished at a definite past time – I met her in 2022.
Present perfect: past action connected to the present; no definite time – I have met her.
Subject-verb agreement (concord) means the verb must agree with its subject in number and person. A singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb. Errors of concord are among the most frequent in university "spot the error" and "correct the sentence" questions.
Key points
Singular subject → singular verb: The boy plays. Plural subject → plural verb: The boys play.
Two subjects joined by and take a plural verb: Ram and Shyam are friends.
But if the two nouns name one person or one idea, use a singular verb: The secretary and treasurer has arrived (one person). Bread and butter is my breakfast.
With either…or / neither…nor / or / nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject: Neither the teacher nor the students were present.
Words between the subject and verb do not change the verb: The box of pencils is on the desk. The leader, along with his followers, was arrested.
Each, every, everyone, everybody, nobody, someone, either, neither take a singular verb: Each of the students has a book.
Collective nouns (team, jury, family, committee) take a singular verb when acting as one unit and a plural verb when members act separately: The jury has given its verdict. The jury are divided in their opinions.
Some nouns look plural but are singular: news, mathematics, physics, economics (as a subject): The news is good.
Some nouns are always plural: scissors, trousers, spectacles, cattle, police: The police have caught the thief.
A number of takes a plural verb; the number of takes a singular verb.
Amounts of time, money and distance as one unit take a singular verb: Ten kilometres is a long walk.
One of + plural noun takes a singular verb: One of my friends is a doctor.
Important terms
Concord – agreement between subject and verb.
Number – singular or plural.
Person – first (I, we), second (you), third (he, she, it, they).
Collective noun – a noun naming a group as one unit.
Proximity rule – the verb agrees with the nearer subject (with or/nor).
Language study
Subject
Verb
Example
He/She/It/singular noun
-s form, is, was, has
She writes neatly.
I/We/You/They/plural noun
base form, are, were, have
They write neatly.
Each/Every/Everyone
singular
Everyone is happy.
A number of
plural
A number of boys were absent.
The number of
singular
The number of boys is small.
5 important questions
Q1. Correct the sentence: "One of the boys were absent."
"One of the boys was absent." The subject is "one", which is singular.
Q2. Choose the correct verb: "Neither Ravi nor his friends (is/are) coming."
"are" – the verb agrees with the nearer subject, "friends".
Q3. What is concord? Explain any four rules with examples.
Concord means the verb agrees with the subject in number and person.
Subjects joined by "and" take a plural verb: Sita and Gita are sisters.
Either/neither…or/nor: verb agrees with the nearer subject: Either you or he is wrong.
Each/every/everyone: singular verb: Every student has a uniform.
Words like "along with, as well as, with" do not affect the verb: The captain, with his players, was honoured.
Q4. Explain the use of verbs with collective nouns and with nouns like "news" and "scissors".
A collective noun as one unit takes a singular verb: The committee has met.
When members act separately, a plural verb is used: The committee are quarrelling among themselves.
Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning: news, physics, measles – singular verb.
Nouns used only in the plural: scissors, trousers, goods – plural verb (The scissors are sharp; a pair of scissors is…).
Q5. Correct the errors: (a) Bread and butter are good food. (b) Each of them have a pen. (c) The cattle is grazing. (d) A number of students was late.
(a) is (b) has (c) are (d) were.
Exam tip
First find the real subject (the headword), ignoring phrases like "of the boys" or "along with". Then decide whether it is singular or plural.
Voice shows whether the subject does the action (active) or receives it (passive). We use the passive when the doer is unknown, unimportant or obvious, or when we want to focus on the action. Changing voice is a common "do as directed" question.
Key points
Active: Subject + verb + object. The farmer grows rice.
Passive: Object becomes subject + form of be + past participle (+ by + doer). Rice is grown by the farmer.
Only transitive verbs (verbs with an object) can be changed into the passive.
The tense of be must match the tense of the active verb.
Pronouns change case: I → me, we → us, he → him, she → her, they → them.
"By + doer" is often dropped when the doer is not important: The bridge was built in 1990.
Continuous passives use being: is being, was being.
Perfect passives use been: has been, had been, will have been.
Modals: modal + be + V3: can be done, must be finished.
Imperative sentences use let: "Open the door." → Let the door be opened.
Passive voice is common in science reports, news and official notices.
Important terms
Active voice – subject performs the action.
Passive voice – subject receives the action.
Agent – the doer of the action, shown with "by" in the passive.
Transitive verb – a verb that takes an object (write, eat, build).
Intransitive verb – a verb with no object (sleep, arrive); it has no passive.
Language study
Tense
Active
Passive
Simple present
She writes a letter.
A letter is written by her.
Present continuous
She is writing a letter.
A letter is being written by her.
Present perfect
She has written a letter.
A letter has been written by her.
Simple past
She wrote a letter.
A letter was written by her.
Past continuous
She was writing a letter.
A letter was being written by her.
Past perfect
She had written a letter.
A letter had been written by her.
Simple future
She will write a letter.
A letter will be written by her.
Modal
She can write a letter.
A letter can be written by her.
Questions: "Did he paint this?" → Was this painted by him? "Who broke the glass?" → By whom was the glass broken?
Two objects: "He gave me a book." → I was given a book by him. or A book was given to me by him.
5 important questions
Q1. Change into passive: "The police arrested the thief."
The thief was arrested by the police.
Q2. Why can't "The baby slept" be changed into the passive?
"Slept" is an intransitive verb; it has no object. Only a verb with an object can become passive.
Q3. Explain the rules for changing active voice into passive voice.
Make the object of the active sentence the subject.
Use the correct form of be according to the tense (is/are/was/were/has been, etc.).
Use the past participle (V3) of the main verb.
Put the active subject after "by" (change pronoun case), or drop it if unimportant.
Keep the meaning and tense the same.
Q4. Change the voice: (a) Who wrote Gitanjali? (b) Shut the window. (c) They are building a new road.
(a) By whom was Gitanjali written? (b) Let the window be shut. (c) A new road is being built (by them).
Q5. When is the passive voice preferred? Give examples.
When the doer is unknown: My bicycle was stolen.
When the doer is obvious: The thief was arrested. (by the police)
To focus on the action or result: The results will be declared on Monday.
In formal and scientific writing: The solution was heated to 80°C.
To sound polite or neutral in notices: Visitors are requested to keep silence.
Exam tip
First find the tense of the active verb, then pick the matching form of be. Most mistakes come from using the wrong tense of be.
Transformation of sentences means changing the form of a sentence without changing its meaning. Common types are interchange of degrees of comparison, affirmative ↔ negative, assertive ↔ interrogative, exclamatory ↔ assertive, and simple ↔ compound ↔ complex. These are standard "do as directed" items in compulsory English papers.
Key points
The meaning must remain the same; only the structure changes.
Degrees of comparison: positive (as tall as), comparative (taller than), superlative (the tallest).
Superlative → comparative → positive: Mumbai is the largest city in Maharashtra. → Mumbai is larger than any other city in Maharashtra. → No other city in Maharashtra is as large as Mumbai.
Affirmative → negative: use the opposite word with "not": He is honest. → He is not dishonest. Always → never: She always works hard. → She never fails to work hard.
"Only" becomes "none but" (persons) or "nothing but" (things): Only Ravi passed. → None but Ravi passed.
Assertive → interrogative: a positive statement becomes a negative question and vice versa: He is a fool. → Isn't he a fool? Nobody can do this. → Who can do this?
Exclamatory → assertive: What a beautiful sight it is! → It is a very beautiful sight.
A simple sentence has one finite verb; a compound sentence joins two main clauses with and, but, or, so; a complex sentence has a main clause and a subordinate clause (because, when, who, if, that).
Simple: Being tired, he slept. Compound: He was tired, so he slept. Complex: As he was tired, he slept.
"Too…to" can become "so…that…not": He is too weak to walk. → He is so weak that he cannot walk.
"As soon as" ↔ "No sooner…than": As soon as he came, it rained. → No sooner did he come than it rained.
Important terms
Transformation – change of form, not meaning.
Positive / comparative / superlative – three degrees of adjectives.
Main clause – a clause that can stand alone.
Subordinate clause – a clause that depends on the main clause.
Conjunction – a joining word (and, but, because).
Language study
From
To
Example
Too…to
so…that…not
too hot to drink → so hot that we cannot drink it
Not only…but also
and / as well as
Not only Ram but also Sita came → Ram as well as Sita came
If…not
Unless
If you do not work, you will fail → Unless you work, you will fail
Simple (participle)
Complex (since/as)
Seeing the police, he ran → When he saw the police, he ran
5 important questions
Q1. Change into the positive degree: "Gold is more precious than silver."
Silver is not as precious as gold.
Q2. Rewrite using "No sooner…than": "As soon as the bell rang, the students left."
No sooner did the bell ring than the students left.
Q3. Explain interchange of degrees of comparison with examples.
Superlative: Kalsubai is the highest peak in Maharashtra.
Comparative: Kalsubai is higher than any other peak in Maharashtra.
Positive: No other peak in Maharashtra is as high as Kalsubai.
For "one of the + superlative": Tagore was one of the greatest poets. → Tagore was greater than most other poets. → Very few poets were as great as Tagore.
Q4. Distinguish simple, compound and complex sentences with examples.
Simple: one finite verb – Due to rain, the match was cancelled.
Compound: two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction – It rained, so the match was cancelled.
Complex: main clause + subordinate clause – The match was cancelled because it rained.
Simple → complex: expand a phrase into a clause; complex → compound: replace the subordinator with and/but/so.
Q5. Do as directed: (a) Only the brave deserve the fair. (negative) (b) What a lovely garden! (assertive) (c) Everyone loves his country. (interrogative)
(a) None but the brave deserve the fair. (b) It is a very lovely garden. (c) Who does not love his country?
Exam tip
After transforming, read both sentences once more and check the tense and meaning are unchanged. Keep the original words as far as possible; examiners deduct marks for changed meaning.
Speaking for Different Purposes: Greeting, Requests and Permission
Quick summary
Spoken English is used for everyday purposes such as greeting, introducing, asking for information, seeking permission, making requests and suggestions, agreeing or disagreeing and apologising. Each purpose has polite, formal and informal expressions. Papers ask you to write short dialogues or give suitable expressions for a situation.
Key points
Greeting: Good morning / Hello / Hi (informal). Reply in the same way. Taking leave: Goodbye, See you later, Have a nice day.
Introducing yourself: "Hello, I'm Priya Patil. I'm a first-year BA student from Bhandara." Introducing others: "May I introduce my friend Amit? Amit, this is Prof. Deshmukh."
Asking for information: Could you tell me…? Do you know where…? Excuse me, which bus goes to…?
Seeking permission: May I come in, sir? Could I use your phone? Would you mind if I opened the window? Replies: Sure / Of course / I'm afraid not.
Making requests: Could you please…? Would you mind helping me…? Can you lend me…? ("Would" and "could" are more polite than "can".)
Making suggestions: Let's…, Why don't we…? How about…? Shall we…? You could…
Agreeing: I agree with you. Exactly. That's right. Partly agreeing: You may be right, but… I agree up to a point. Disagreeing politely: I'm sorry, but I don't think so. I see your point, however…
Apologising: I'm sorry for being late. I apologise for the mistake. Replies: That's all right. Never mind. No problem.
Thanking: Thank you very much. Thanks a lot. Replies: You're welcome. My pleasure.
Telephone etiquette: greet, give your name, state the purpose, speak clearly, and close politely ("Thank you for calling").
Formal situations (office, teacher, interview) need polite forms; informal ones (friends) allow short forms.
Tone, body language and eye contact matter as much as words.
Important terms
Function – the purpose for which language is used.
Register – the level of formality (formal/informal).
Politeness marker – words like please, could, would, may.
Etiquette – accepted rules of polite behaviour.
Dialogue – a conversation between two or more people.
Language study
Purpose
Formal
Informal
Permission
May I leave early today, sir?
Can I go now?
Request
Would you kindly sign this form?
Sign this, please.
Suggestion
I would suggest that we start early.
Let's start early.
Disagreement
I'm afraid I can't agree with that.
No way!
Apology
Please accept my apologies.
Sorry!
5 important questions
Q1. How would you seek permission from your principal to leave college early?
"Excuse me, sir. May I leave college early today? I have to accompany my mother to the hospital." Use "May I" and give a reason.
Q2. Give two polite ways of disagreeing.
"I'm sorry, but I see it differently." / "That's a good point, but I'm not sure I agree."
Q3. Write a dialogue between a student and a librarian about borrowing a book.
Student: Good morning, madam. Could you tell me if "Train to Pakistan" is available?
Librarian: Good morning. Let me check… Yes, one copy is available.
Student: May I borrow it for a week?
Librarian: Sure. Please show your library card. Return it by next Monday.
Student: Thank you very much, madam.
Librarian: You're welcome.
Q4. Explain the expressions used for making requests and suggestions.
Requests: Can/Could/Would you…? Would you mind + -ing? I wonder if you could…
"Could" and "would" sound more polite than "can".
Suggestions: Let's…, Shall we…? Why don't we…? How about + -ing? You'd better…
Accepting: That's a good idea. Rejecting: I'd rather not, thanks.
Use a polite tone and "please" in formal situations.
Q5. What is telephone etiquette? Mention its main points.
Greet and identify yourself: "Good afternoon, this is Rahul speaking."
State the purpose briefly.
Speak clearly and at a moderate speed; don't shout.
Listen carefully; note down important details.
Ask politely to hold or call back if needed.
End politely: "Thank you. Have a nice day."
Exam tip
In dialogue questions, give each speaker 4–6 lines, use polite markers (please, could, may) and end with thanks. Name the speakers clearly.
Direct speech gives the exact words of a speaker inside inverted commas. Indirect (reported) speech gives the meaning of those words without quoting them. Changing from direct to indirect speech involves changes in the reporting verb, tense, pronouns and words of time and place.
Key points
Direct: He said, "I am tired." Indirect: He said that he was tired.
If the reporting verb is in the past (said, told), the tense in the reported speech usually moves one step back.
If the reporting verb is in the present or future (says, will say), the tense does not change.
Universal truths and habitual facts do not change tense: She said that the earth moves round the sun.
Pronouns change according to the speaker and listener (I → he/she; we → they; you → I/he/she/they as the sense needs).
Words of nearness change to words of distance: now → then, here → there, this → that, today → that day, tomorrow → the next day, yesterday → the previous day, ago → before.
Statements use "that"; yes/no questions use "if/whether"; wh-questions use the wh-word itself.
Commands use "ordered / told / requested / advised + to + verb".
Exclamations use "exclaimed with joy / sorrow / wonder that...".
Inverted commas and the question mark are removed in indirect speech.
Important terms
Reporting verb – the verb that introduces speech: said, asked, told.
Reported speech – the words spoken (the part inside commas in direct speech).
Backshift – moving the tense one step back in indirect speech.
Inverted commas – quotation marks " " used in direct speech.
Language study
Direct
Indirect (after a past reporting verb)
simple present (am/is/are, V1)
simple past (was/were, V2)
present continuous
past continuous
present perfect
past perfect
simple past
past perfect
will / shall
would
can / may
could / might
must
had to (or must)
Change "said to" to "told" for statements, "asked" for questions, and "ordered/requested" for commands.
5 important questions
Q1. Change into indirect speech: Ravi said, "I am going to Nagpur tomorrow."
Ravi said that he was going to Nagpur the next day.
Q2. Change into indirect speech: The teacher said to me, "Are you ready?"
The teacher asked me if (whether) I was ready.
Q3. State the rules for changing a statement into indirect speech.
Remove the inverted commas and use "that".
Change "said to" into "told".
Backshift the tense if the reporting verb is in the past.
Change pronouns to fit the speaker and listener.
Change words of time and place (now → then, here → there).
Do not change tense for universal truths.
Q4. Change into indirect speech: (a) She said to him, "Where do you live?" (b) The officer said to the soldiers, "March forward." (c) He said, "What a beautiful sight!"
(a) She asked him where he lived. (b) The officer ordered the soldiers to march forward. (c) He exclaimed with wonder that it was a very beautiful sight.
Q5. Change into direct speech: "Mother told me not to waste water."
Mother said to me, "Do not waste water."
Steps: decide the speaker's actual words, put them in inverted commas, change pronouns and tense back to the speaker's time, and use a comma after "said".
Exam tip
Check three things in every answer: tense, pronoun and time/place words. Missing any one of these loses marks.
Idioms, phrasal verbs and one-word substitutes make English rich and precise. An idiom has a meaning different from its separate words, a phrasal verb is a verb plus a particle with a special meaning, and a one-word substitute replaces a group of words. They are asked in vocabulary sections of university and competitive exams.
Key points
An idiom cannot be understood word by word: "to let the cat out of the bag" means to reveal a secret.
Idioms must be used in their fixed form; do not change the words ("a piece of cake", not "a part of cake").
A phrasal verb = verb + adverb/preposition: give up (stop), look after (take care of), put off (postpone), run out of (have no more).
The same verb gives different meanings with different particles: take off (remove / leave the ground), take after (resemble), take up (start a hobby).
Some phrasal verbs can be separated: "turn off the light" = "turn the light off"; some cannot: "look after the baby".
A one-word substitute replaces a phrase with one exact word: a person who cannot read or write = illiterate.
One-word substitution makes writing shorter, which is useful in précis.
Many substitutes come from Latin and Greek roots: -cide (killing), -phobia (fear), omni- (all), auto- (self).
Use idioms carefully in formal writing; too many make it sound unnatural.
Important terms
Idiom – a fixed phrase with a non-literal meaning.
Phrasal verb – a verb plus particle with a new meaning.
Particle – the small word (up, off, out, in) in a phrasal verb.
One-word substitute – a single word for a group of words.
Proverb – a short popular saying giving advice (Haste makes waste).
Language study
Idiom
Meaning
a piece of cake
very easy
once in a blue moon
very rarely
to burn the midnight oil
to study/work late at night
to hit the nail on the head
to say exactly the right thing
to beat about the bush
to avoid the main point
to turn over a new leaf
to change one's behaviour for the better
Phrasal verb
Meaning
call off
cancel
bring up
raise a child / mention
carry on
continue
look into
investigate
put up with
tolerate
break down
stop working / lose control of feelings
Group of words
One word
one who knows everything
omniscient
a list of books
catalogue
a speech made without preparation
extempore
one who loves his country
patriot
that which cannot be seen
invisible
fear of water
hydrophobia
a life history written by oneself
autobiography
5 important questions
Q1. Use in sentences: (a) a piece of cake (b) call off.
(a) The first question was a piece of cake for Neha. (b) The match was called off because of heavy rain.
Q2. Give one word for: (a) a person who does not believe in God (b) a medicine that kills germs (c) a government by the people.
Q3. What are phrasal verbs? Explain with examples.
A phrasal verb is a verb + particle that together give a new meaning.
give up = stop (He gave up smoking).
look forward to = wait eagerly (I look forward to the holidays).
turn down = reject (She turned down the offer).
The meaning often cannot be guessed from the verb alone.
Some are separable (switch the fan off), others not (look after him).
Q4. Explain the meaning of any five idioms and use them in sentences.
To burn the midnight oil: Students burn the midnight oil before exams.
Once in a blue moon: He visits his village once in a blue moon.
To beat about the bush: Stop beating about the bush and tell me the truth.
To turn over a new leaf: After failing, he turned over a new leaf.
To hit the nail on the head: The speaker hit the nail on the head about unemployment.
Q5. Why is one-word substitution useful? Give five examples.
It makes language brief, exact and effective, especially in précis and reports.
Examples: an unbeliever in religion – sceptic; a place where orphans live – orphanage; one who walks on foot – pedestrian; a speech delivered without preparation – extempore; one who cannot be corrected – incorrigible.
Exam tip
Learn idioms and phrasal verbs with an example sentence, not as bare lists. In exams, a sentence that clearly shows the meaning earns full marks.
Indian students often make the same errors in English, mostly because of mother-tongue influence. These include errors in tense, articles, prepositions, concord, pronouns, word order and the use of certain words. University papers carry "spot the error" and "rewrite correctly" questions, so knowing these patterns is very scoring.
Key points
Double comparatives/negatives: "more better" ✗ → "better"; "I don't know nothing" ✗ → "I don't know anything".
Wrong tense with since/for and definite time: "I am living here since 2020" ✗ → "I have been living here since 2020".
Question tags: positive statement → negative tag: "You are coming, aren't you?" Not "isn't it?" for everything.
Reported questions keep statement word order: "He asked me where was I going" ✗ → "He asked me where I was going".
Redundancy (extra words): "return back", "repeat again", "cousin brother", "the reason is because" ✗ → "return", "repeat", "cousin", "the reason is that".
Wrong use of "one of": "one of my friend" ✗ → "one of my friends".
Uncountable nouns have no plural and no "a": furniture, information, advice, luggage, equipment, news: "an advice" ✗ → "a piece of advice".
Pronoun case: "Between you and I" ✗ → "between you and me"; "He is taller than me" (informal) / "than I (am)" (formal).
"Lay" vs "lie", "rise" vs "raise": The hen lays eggs; I lie down. Prices rise; we raise our hands.
Hardly/scarcely take "when", no sooner takes "than".
Punctuation and capitals: capital letters for proper nouns, days and months (Monday, June), and the pronoun "I"; full stops and question marks at the end.
Important terms
Error – a mistake that breaks a rule of grammar or usage.
Redundancy – using unnecessary extra words.
Mother-tongue influence – carrying patterns of one's first language into English.
Uncountable noun – a noun that cannot be counted (water, advice).
Question tag – a short question added at the end of a statement.
Language study
Incorrect
Correct
He is knowing the answer.
He knows the answer.
I have passed in 2023.
I passed in 2023.
Please discuss about it.
Please discuss it.
My all friends came.
All my friends came.
He gave me many informations.
He gave me a lot of information.
She is more cleverer than her sister.
She is cleverer than her sister.
He did not came.
He did not come.
5 important questions
Q1. Correct the sentence: "She has went to the market yesterday."
"She went to the market yesterday." Definite past time needs simple past; "went" is never used after "has".
Q2. Correct: "Hardly had I reached the station than the train left."
"Hardly had I reached the station when the train left."
Q3. Explain common errors related to nouns and pronouns with examples.
Uncountable nouns used as plural: "luggages" ✗ → "luggage".
"Cattles" ✗ → "cattle" (already plural).
Wrong pronoun case: "Me and him went" ✗ → "He and I went".
"Each of the girls have their books" ✗ → "Each of the girls has her book".
"One should do his duty" → "One should do one's duty" (formal).
Q4. What is redundancy? Give five examples and correct them.
Redundancy means using words that repeat the same idea.
return back → return; revert back → revert.
repeat again → repeat; final conclusion → conclusion.
each and every → each (or every).
cousin sister → cousin.
Removing such words makes writing crisp and correct.
Q5. Spot and correct the errors: (a) Let us discuss about the problem. (b) He is senior than me. (c) I am agree with you. (d) Tell me where are you going.
(a) Let us discuss the problem. (b) He is senior to me. (c) I agree with you. (d) Tell me where you are going.
Exam tip
Read the sentence slowly and check in this order: verb tense, subject-verb agreement, articles, prepositions, then word order. Rewrite the whole corrected sentence, not just the word.
A paragraph is a group of connected sentences about one main idea. A good paragraph has a topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. University exams often ask for a paragraph of 100–150 words on a given topic.
Key points
One paragraph = one central idea.
Start with a clear topic sentence that states the idea.
End with a concluding sentence that sums up or gives a final thought.
Unity: every sentence must relate to the main idea; remove off-topic sentences.
Coherence: sentences must follow a logical order and connect smoothly.
Use linking words: firstly, moreover, for example, however, therefore, finally.
Keep sentences varied in length; avoid repeating the same word again and again.
Use simple, correct language rather than difficult words used wrongly.
Stay within the word limit.
Important terms
Topic sentence – states the main idea of the paragraph.
Supporting details – facts, examples and reasons that develop the idea.
Unity – all sentences deal with one idea.
Coherence – logical flow and smooth connection between sentences.
Transition words – words that link ideas (however, thus, in addition).
Language study
Types of paragraphs:
Descriptive – describes a person, place or thing (A Rainy Day in My Village).
Narrative – tells an event in time order (My First Day at College).
Expository – explains or informs (Importance of Trees).
Argumentative – gives an opinion with reasons (Mobile Phones Should Be Allowed in College).
Sample opening and closing lines:
Topic sentence: "Trees are the lungs of our earth."
Concluding sentence: "Therefore, planting and protecting trees is the duty of every citizen."
5 important questions
Q1. What is a topic sentence?
It is the sentence, usually the first, that tells the reader the main idea of the paragraph. All other sentences develop it.
Q2. What do unity and coherence mean in a paragraph?
Unity means all sentences discuss one main idea. Coherence means the sentences are in logical order and linked with suitable connecting words.
Q3. Explain the structure of a good paragraph.
Topic sentence: introduces the idea clearly.
Supporting sentences: explain with reasons, facts and examples.
Logical order: time order, order of importance, or general to particular.
Linking words for smooth flow.
Concluding sentence: sums up the idea or ends with a thought.
Q4. Write a paragraph on "The Importance of Reading" (about 120 words).
Reading is one of the best habits a student can develop. It opens the door to knowledge about the world, its people and its ideas. When we read books, newspapers and magazines, our vocabulary grows and our language improves. Reading also sharpens thinking, because we learn to compare different views. Stories and biographies teach values and give us courage in difficult times. In an age of short videos, reading helps us concentrate for longer. It also reduces stress and gives pleasure in free time. A person who reads regularly speaks and writes with confidence. Therefore, every student should spend at least some time each day reading something worthwhile.
Q5. What are the common mistakes in paragraph writing?
No clear topic sentence.
Mixing several ideas in one paragraph.
Repeating the same point in different words.
Using no linking words, so sentences feel disconnected.
Going far above or below the word limit.
Grammar and spelling errors.
Exam tip
Before writing, jot down 4–5 points in the margin. Then turn each point into one or two sentences – this keeps your paragraph organised.
Expansion of ideas means developing a short proverb, quotation or saying into a full paragraph of about 150–200 words. The writer explains the meaning, supports it with examples and gives a conclusion. It is the opposite of précis writing and tests understanding, thinking and paragraph skills.
Key points
The given line is usually a proverb or quotation: "Knowledge is power", "Where there is a will, there is a way", "Honesty is the best policy".
First understand the literal meaning and the hidden (deeper) meaning.
Begin with a sentence that explains what the saying means in simple words.
Develop the idea with reasons, explanation and two or three examples from history, daily life or famous people.
You may show the opposite situation to make the point clear (contrast).
End with a concluding sentence that sums up the lesson.
Write in one or two well-linked paragraphs, normally 150–200 words.
Use simple, clear language and connectives: for example, moreover, on the other hand, therefore.
Do not write a story only; the idea must be explained.
Do not wander from the main idea or repeat the same sentence in other words.
A title is usually not needed; the given saying itself acts as the heading.
Important terms
Expansion – developing a short idea into a longer passage.
Proverb – a short, popular saying that gives practical wisdom.
Quotation – words of a famous person repeated by others.
Illustration – an example used to explain an idea.
Coherence – logical flow and link between sentences.
Language study
Steps in a table:
Step
What to write
1. Meaning
Explain the saying in one or two sentences.
2. Explanation
Why is it true? Give reasons.
3. Examples
Two or three examples from life, history or society.
4. Contrast (optional)
What happens when the idea is ignored.
5. Conclusion
The lesson or message in one sentence.
Useful linking words: firstly, for instance, similarly, however, in contrast, thus, in short.
5 important questions
Q1. What is meant by expansion of ideas?
It is the art of explaining a short proverb or quotation in a paragraph of 150–200 words, using reasons and examples, and ending with its lesson.
Q2. How is expansion different from précis?
Précis reduces a long passage to about one-third of its length; expansion develops a short saying into a long paragraph. Précis summarises, expansion explains.
Q3. Expand the idea: "Knowledge is power."
Meaning: knowledge gives a person the ability to act, decide and succeed.
An educated farmer uses better seeds and methods and earns more.
Nations with scientific knowledge become strong (space and IT progress of India).
Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar used knowledge as a tool for social change; he said "Educate, agitate, organise".
Ignorance makes people easy to cheat and exploit.
Conclusion: knowledge is the real wealth that no one can steal; we should keep learning.
Q4. Expand: "Where there is a will, there is a way."
Meaning: strong determination helps us find a way through difficulties.
Will-power keeps a person going when resources are few.
Example: Dashrath Manjhi cut a path through a hill alone over about 22 years.
Example: many toppers study in poor conditions but succeed by effort.
Without will, even good chances are wasted.
Conclusion: firm determination turns the impossible into possible.
Q5. Explain the steps to be followed while expanding an idea.
Read the saying and understand both literal and deeper meaning.
Note down points: meaning, reasons, examples, contrast, lesson.
Arrange the points logically.
Write a clear opening sentence explaining the saying.
Develop each point with examples; use linking words.
End with a strong concluding sentence; check grammar and length.
Exam tip
Spend two minutes jotting points before writing. One relevant Indian example (a freedom fighter, a scientist, a local achiever) makes your answer stand out.
Letters are of two main types: formal (official) and informal (personal). A formal letter follows a fixed layout and polite, direct language. Students are often asked to write an application, a complaint letter or a letter to the editor.
Key points
Informal letters go to friends and relatives; the tone is warm and personal.
Formal letters go to officials, offices, companies, editors and principals; the tone is polite, brief and clear.
The most common layout today is the full block format: every line starts at the left margin.
A formal letter must have a subject line that states the purpose in a few words.
Start the body by stating the purpose; give details in the middle; end with the action you want.
Use "Sir/Madam" or "Respected Sir/Madam" when you do not know the name.
End formal letters with "Yours faithfully" (unknown person) or "Yours sincerely" (known by name).
Avoid slang, short forms (u, pls) and emotional language in formal letters.
Keep each paragraph short: 2–4 sentences.
Emails follow the same principles: clear subject, greeting, short body, polite closing.
Important terms
Sender's address – your address, written at the top.
Receiver's address – the designation and address of the person you write to.
Salutation – the greeting: Dear Sir, Respected Madam.
Subject line – one line stating the purpose of the letter.
Complimentary close – Yours faithfully / Yours sincerely.
Enclosure – documents attached with the letter.
Language study
Layout of a formal letter (block format):
Sender's address and date
Receiver's designation, office and address
Subject: ...
Salutation: Respected Sir/Madam,
Body (introduction – details – request)
Complimentary close: Yours faithfully,
Signature and name
Encl.: (if any)
Useful phrases:
"I am writing to bring to your notice that..."
"I request you to kindly..."
"I shall be grateful if you take early action."
"Thanking you in anticipation."
5 important questions
Q1. Write two differences between formal and informal letters.
Formal letters are written to officials for business or official purposes in polite, brief language with a subject line. Informal letters are written to friends and family in a friendly tone without a subject line.
Q2. When do we use "Yours faithfully" and "Yours sincerely"?
"Yours faithfully" is used when the receiver is addressed as Sir/Madam (name not known). "Yours sincerely" is used when the receiver is addressed by name.
Q3. Write a letter to the Principal requesting a bonafide certificate.
Sender: name, class, roll number, college; date.
To: The Principal, (college name and city).
Subject: Request for a bonafide certificate.
Body: I am a student of B.A. Part I (roll no.). I need a bonafide certificate to apply for a scholarship / bus concession. Kindly issue it at the earliest.
Close: Yours faithfully, signature, name.
Q4. Write a letter to the Municipal Commissioner complaining about irregular water supply.
Subject: Complaint about irregular water supply in (area).
Para 1: State the problem – no regular supply for the last two weeks.
Para 2: Effects – residents buy water, health and hygiene problems, students and elders suffer.
Para 3: Request – inspect the pipeline, fix supply timing, send tankers until repaired.
Close: Yours faithfully, name, on behalf of residents.
Q5. What are the qualities of a good formal letter?
Clear purpose stated early.
Correct layout and subject line.
Brief: only relevant details.
Polite and respectful tone, even in a complaint.
Correct grammar, spelling and punctuation.
Ends with a clear request or action.
Exam tip
Marks are given for layout as well as content. Draw the format correctly – address, date, subject, salutation and close – even if you are short of time.
E-mail is the most common form of written communication in offices, colleges and businesses today. A good e-mail is short, clear, polite and properly structured, with a meaningful subject line. University papers ask students to draft formal e-mails for situations like applying for leave, making an enquiry, or replying to a complaint.
Key points
An e-mail has these parts: To, Cc, Bcc, Subject, Salutation, Body, Closing, Signature, and sometimes an Attachment.
To – main receiver; Cc (carbon copy) – others who should know; Bcc (blind carbon copy) – receivers hidden from others.
The subject line should tell the purpose in a few words: "Request for Duplicate Hall Ticket".
The body should be in short paragraphs: purpose first, then details, then the action expected.
Close politely: "Regards", "Best regards", "Yours sincerely", "Thank you".
Signature: full name, designation/class, contact number.
Use a professional e-mail address (firstname.surname@…), not funny IDs.
Avoid capital letters for whole words (it looks like shouting), slang, emojis and SMS language in formal mails.
Mention attachments in the body ("Please find attached my resume") and actually attach them.
Reply within a reasonable time; use "Reply all" only when everyone needs the reply.
Proofread before sending; an e-mail cannot be taken back once sent.
Important terms
Subject line – one-line summary of the e-mail's purpose.
Cc – carbon copy; visible to all.
Bcc – blind carbon copy; hidden from other receivers.
Attachment – a file sent with the e-mail.
Netiquette – good manners on the internet.
Signature block – sender's details at the end.
Language study
Format of a formal e-mail:
Part
Example
To
principal@xyzcollege.edu.in
Subject
Application for leave from 10 to 12 March
Salutation
Respected Sir,
Body (opening)
I am Sneha Bawane, a student of BA Part I (Roll No. 24).
Body (details)
I request leave for three days as I have to attend my sister's wedding in Gondia.
Body (closing)
I shall complete the missed work. Kindly grant me leave.
Closing
Thank you. Yours obediently,
Signature
Sneha Bawane, BA I, Mobile: …
Useful phrases: I am writing to enquire about… / Please find attached… / I look forward to your reply. / Kindly do the needful.
5 important questions
Q1. What is the difference between Cc and Bcc?
Receivers in Cc can be seen by everyone who gets the mail. Receivers in Bcc are hidden from the others; it protects privacy when mailing many people.
Q2. Why is the subject line important?
It tells the receiver the purpose at a glance, helps them decide priority, and makes the mail easy to find later.
Q3. Draft an e-mail to a bookseller enquiring about the availability of prescribed textbooks.
To: sales@vidyabooks.in; Subject: Enquiry about BA Part I textbooks.
Salutation: Dear Sir/Madam,
Body: introduce yourself; list the book titles and authors; ask about availability, price, discount for students and home delivery.
Closing: "I look forward to your early reply. Regards,"
Signature: name, college, phone number.
Q4. Explain the features of an effective e-mail.
Clear subject line and correct address.
Polite salutation and closing.
Short paragraphs; purpose in the first lines.
Simple, correct, formal language.
Necessary details only (dates, numbers, names).
Attachments mentioned and attached.
Proofread for spelling and tone.
Q5. What is netiquette? Give its main rules.
Netiquette means polite and responsible behaviour online.
Don't write in all capitals; don't use rude language.
Respect privacy: use Bcc for group mails; don't forward personal mails without permission.
Keep mails brief; reply on time.
Don't send spam or chain mails; check facts before forwarding.
Exam tip
In the exam, draw the e-mail format with To, Subject and the body clearly separated. Marks are given for format, a proper subject line and polite tone as much as for content.
Notices, agendas and minutes are formal pieces of writing used in colleges, offices and organisations. A notice announces information to a group, an agenda lists the items to be discussed in a meeting, and minutes are the official record of what was discussed and decided. All three follow fixed formats, which carry marks in exams.
Key points
A notice is a short written announcement placed on a notice board or circulated.
Notice format: name of institution, the word NOTICE, date, heading/title, body (what, when, where, who), name and designation of the issuing authority.
A notice should be brief (about 50–80 words), clear, factual and written in formal language; it is often put in a box.
An agenda is the list of items to be taken up at a meeting, sent in advance with the notice of the meeting.
Agenda format: name of body, meeting number/type, date, time and venue, then numbered items.
Usual order of agenda items: confirmation of the minutes of the last meeting, business arising from them, main items, any other matter with the permission of the chair, vote of thanks.
Minutes are the written record of a meeting: who attended, what was discussed and what was decided (resolutions).
Minutes are written in the past tense and in reported (third-person) language: "It was resolved that…".
Minutes record decisions, not every word spoken; they are signed by the chairperson after being confirmed at the next meeting.
The secretary usually issues the notice and agenda and writes the minutes.
Quorum is the minimum number of members needed for a valid meeting.
Important terms
Notice – formal written announcement.
Agenda – list of items for a meeting.
Minutes – official record of a meeting.
Resolution – a formal decision taken at a meeting.
Quorum – minimum attendance for a valid meeting.
Chairperson – the person who conducts the meeting.
AOB – any other business.
Language study
Sample notice:
ABC College of Arts, Bhandara NOTICE 5 August 2025 ESSAY COMPETITION The English Department will hold an essay competition on "Digital India" on 14 August 2025 at 11 a.m. in Room 12. Interested students should give their names to the undersigned by 10 August. Sd/- Prof. R. Meshram, Head, Dept. of English
Minutes – useful phrases: "The meeting began at 3 p.m. with the chairperson in the chair." / "The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed." / "It was unanimously resolved that…" / "The meeting ended with a vote of thanks."
5 important questions
Q1. What is a quorum?
A quorum is the minimum number of members who must be present for a meeting to be valid and for its decisions to count.
Q2. Who prepares the agenda and minutes?
Usually the secretary of the organisation prepares the agenda in consultation with the chairperson and writes the minutes after the meeting.
Q3. Draft a notice informing students about a blood donation camp.
Name of college at top; NOTICE; date.
Heading: BLOOD DONATION CAMP.
Body: organised by NSS unit; date, time, venue; who can donate (age 18+, healthy, weight above 45 kg); bring ID; certificates for donors.
Contact person and last date to register.
Signature: NSS Programme Officer.
Q4. Draft an agenda for the first meeting of the college Literary Association.
Heading: Literary Association, XYZ College – Agenda for the first meeting, date, time, venue.
Welcome and introduction of members.
Election of office-bearers.
Planning of activities for the year (debate, elocution, wall magazine).
Budget.
Any other matter with the chair's permission.
Vote of thanks.
Q5. Distinguish between an agenda and minutes.
Agenda is prepared before the meeting; minutes after it.
Agenda lists what will be discussed; minutes record what was discussed and decided.
Agenda is written in future/plain list form; minutes in the past tense and reported style.
Agenda is sent to members with the notice; minutes are confirmed and signed at the next meeting.
Exam tip
Always put the notice in a box and include all five W's (what, when, where, who, why). For minutes, use the past tense and passive voice throughout.
Literature papers in BA English ask students to read prose lessons and poems and to write about their theme, characters, style and message. Appreciation means explaining what a text says, how it says it, and why it is effective. A simple framework helps you answer any such question.
Key points
Prose is ordinary written language in sentences and paragraphs: essays, short stories, speeches, autobiographies.
Poetry uses lines and stanzas, rhythm, sound and images to express feeling and thought.
For any text, first find the theme (central idea) and the message.
In prose, look at the writer's purpose, arguments, examples, characters and tone.
In poetry, look at the speaker, mood, imagery, figures of speech, rhyme scheme and rhythm.
Always support your points with a short reference or quotation from the text.
Write in the present tense: "The poet describes...", "The writer argues...".
Give your personal response at the end: what you learnt or felt.
Context questions ask: who says it, to whom, when, and what it shows.
Important terms
Theme – the central idea of a work (e.g. love of nature, freedom).
Tone – the writer's attitude (serious, ironic, humorous).
Mood – the feeling created in the reader.
Imagery – word pictures that appeal to the senses.
Rhyme scheme – pattern of rhyming line-endings, shown as aabb, abab.
Stanza – a group of lines in a poem.
Narrator – the voice that tells a story.
Free verse – poetry without regular rhyme or metre.
Language study
Steps for a poem appreciation (about 150–200 words):
Title and poet.
Theme in one or two sentences.
Summary of the poem's ideas, stanza by stanza.
Poetic devices with examples (simile, metaphor, personification, alliteration).
Rhyme scheme and form.
Language and style (simple, musical, rich in images).
Message and your personal opinion.
Steps for a prose answer:
Introduce the writer and the lesson.
State the main idea.
Explain key incidents or arguments.
Comment on style and tone.
Conclude with the message.
5 important questions
Q1. What is the difference between theme and summary?
A summary tells briefly what happens or what is said in the text. A theme is the central idea behind it, such as courage, freedom or the value of hard work.
Q2. What is a rhyme scheme? Give an example.
It is the pattern of rhymes at the ends of lines, marked with letters. If lines 1 and 2 rhyme and 3 and 4 rhyme, the scheme is aabb.
Q3. How will you write the appreciation of a poem?
Mention title, poet and form.
State the theme.
Explain the content stanza-wise.
Identify poetic devices with examples.
Note rhyme scheme, rhythm and imagery.
Comment on language and mood.
End with the message and your response.
Q4. Explain how to answer a reference-to-context question.
Identify the text and the writer.
Say who speaks the lines and to whom.
Describe the situation in which they are spoken.
Explain the meaning of the lines.
Point out their importance in the whole text (theme, character, irony).
Q5. Discuss the features of a good prose essay.
A clear central idea.
Logical arrangement of points.
Suitable examples and evidence.
A personal or persuasive voice.
Clear, readable style.
A strong conclusion that leaves a thought with the reader.
Exam tip
Quote or refer to the text in every literature answer. Even one short phrase from the poem or lesson shows the examiner you have read it.