Reading comprehension means reading a passage and understanding it fully: the main idea, the details, the writer's purpose and the meaning of new words. In university exams you get an unseen passage followed by questions. A clear method makes these questions easy marks.
Key points
Read the passage once quickly to get the main idea (gist). Then read it again slowly.
Read the questions before the second reading, so you know what to look for.
The main idea is often in the first or last sentence of a paragraph (the topic sentence).
Separate facts (can be checked) from opinions (the writer's views).
Guess the meaning of a new word from the words around it (context clues).
Answer in your own words. Do not copy whole sentences from the passage.
Keep answers short and to the point; use complete sentences.
For a title, choose a short phrase that covers the whole passage, not one detail.
For "true or false" items, find the exact line that proves your answer.
Inference questions ask what the writer suggests but does not say directly.
Important terms
Gist – the general meaning of a passage in a sentence or two.
Skimming – reading quickly to get the overall idea.
Scanning – looking quickly for one specific fact, name, date or number.
Inference – a conclusion you reach from clues in the text.
Topic sentence – the sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph.
Tone – the writer's attitude, for example serious, humorous, critical or hopeful.
Context clue – a hint in nearby words that explains a difficult word.
Language study
Synonym questions: replace the word in the sentence with your answer and check that the sentence still makes sense. Example: "The villagers were jubilant after the rain" → happy, joyful.
Antonym questions: give a word of the same part of speech. The antonym of ancient (adjective) is modern (adjective), not modernity.
Words like however, but, although show contrast; therefore, so, as a result show result; for example, such as introduce examples. These signal words help you follow the argument.
Q1. What is the difference between skimming and scanning?
Skimming is fast reading to get the general idea of a passage. Scanning is fast searching for one particular piece of information, such as a date or a name. We skim a newspaper article; we scan a timetable.
Q2. How can you find the meaning of an unknown word in a passage?
Look at the words and sentences around it (context). Check if there is a definition, an example, a synonym or a contrast nearby. Also break the word into prefix, root and suffix.
Q3. Explain the steps you follow to answer an unseen passage.
Skim the passage for the gist.
Read all the questions carefully.
Read the passage again and underline lines that answer each question.
Answer in your own words, in full sentences.
Do the vocabulary questions using context.
Give a suitable title that covers the whole passage.
Revise your answers for grammar and spelling.
Q4. What is an inference question? Explain with an example.
It asks for a meaning that is suggested, not stated.
You must join clues from the text.
Example: "Ravi kept looking at the clock and tapping his foot." Inference: Ravi was impatient or nervous.
Always support your inference with a line from the passage.
Q5. How do you choose a suitable title for a passage?
Find the central idea that runs through all paragraphs.
Keep the title short (2–6 words) and clear.
Avoid titles that cover only one example or one paragraph.
The title may be a phrase, e.g. "Saving Our Rivers", rather than a full sentence.
Exam tip
Never leave a comprehension answer as a copied paragraph. Short answers in your own words, with correct grammar, get full marks.
Vocabulary Building: Synonyms, Antonyms and Word Formation
Quick summary
A good vocabulary helps you read faster, write clearly and score in "do as directed" questions. This topic covers synonyms and antonyms, prefixes and suffixes, and the main ways new English words are formed. University papers ask you to give synonyms or antonyms, form new words, and identify the word-formation process.
Key points
A synonym is a word with the same or nearly the same meaning: big – large, begin – start.
An antonym is a word with the opposite meaning: rich – poor, accept – reject.
Very few synonyms are exact; choose the one that fits the context. "A tall building" is natural, "a high man" is not.
Antonyms are often made by adding a negative prefix: happy – unhappy, possible – impossible, legal – illegal, regular – irregular, honest – dishonest.
A prefix is added at the beginning of a word and usually changes the meaning: re- (again), pre- (before), mis- (wrongly), over- (too much).
A suffix is added at the end and often changes the word class: kind → kindness (noun), beauty → beautiful (adjective), quick → quickly (adverb), modern → modernise (verb).
Compounding joins two words: class + room = classroom; black + board = blackboard.
Compounding: two free words joined (sunflower, railway).
Clipping: shortening (advertisement → ad).
Blending: parts of two words (motor + hotel = motel).
Acronyms: first letters (NATO, radar).
Borrowing: taking words from other languages (bungalow, jungle, pyjama from Indian languages).
Conversion: a word changes class without change of form (to email someone, a walk).
Q5. What are collocations? Why are they important?
Collocations are words that are commonly used together: fast food, take a photo, pay attention.
Wrong pairs sound unnatural: "do a mistake" ✗ → "make a mistake" ✓.
They make speech and writing natural and fluent.
Learn them in groups: make (a decision, a plan, progress), do (work, a favour, your duty).
Exam tip
When giving synonyms, write a word of the same part of speech as the given word. For antonyms, check the correct prefix (il- before l, ir- before r, im- before p/m/b).
Every word in an English sentence does a job. Grammar groups words into eight parts of speech according to that job. Knowing them helps you build correct sentences and answer "identify the part of speech" questions.
Key points
The eight parts of speech are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Some grammars add determiners (a, an, the, this, some) as a separate class.
A word's part of speech depends on its use in the sentence. "Light the lamp" (verb); "a light bag" (adjective); "the light is bright" (noun).
Nouns and pronouns usually act as subjects and objects.
The verb is the heart of the sentence; every complete sentence needs one.
Adjectives describe nouns; adverbs describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
Prepositions show the relation of a noun to another word (in, on, at, under).
Conjunctions join words or clauses (and, but, because, although).
Important terms
Noun – name of a person, place, thing or idea: Pune, teacher, honesty.
Pronoun – word used in place of a noun: he, she, it, they, who.
Adjective – describes a noun: a tall tree, three books.
Verb – shows action or state: run, write, is, seem.
Adverb – tells how, when, where or how much: slowly, today, here, very.
Preposition – shows relation: The pen is on the table.
Conjunction – joins words or clauses: tea and coffee; I stayed because it rained.
Coordinating conjunctions can be remembered as FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Many adverbs end in -ly, but not all: fast, hard, well, soon.
5 important questions
Q1. Identify the parts of speech in: "Alas! The old man walked slowly to the temple."
Alas – interjection; The – determiner (article); old – adjective; man – noun; walked – verb; slowly – adverb; to – preposition; the – determiner; temple – noun.
Q2. Show with examples how one word can be different parts of speech.
"Fast": He runs fast (adverb); a fast train (adjective); She kept a fast on Monday (noun); They fast during Ramzan (verb).
Q3. What is a noun? Explain its kinds with examples.
A noun names a person, place, thing or idea.
Proper noun: a particular name – Sachin, Godavari.
Common noun: a general name – boy, river.
Collective noun: a group – army, flock, class.
Material noun: a substance – iron, milk, cotton.
Abstract noun: a quality or idea – truth, freedom, childhood.
Q4. Distinguish between an adjective and an adverb.
An adjective qualifies a noun or pronoun: a careful driver.
An adverb modifies a verb, adjective or adverb: He drives carefully.
Adjectives answer "what kind / how many / which"; adverbs answer "how / when / where / how much".
Some words work as both: early bird (adj.); came early (adv.).
Q5. Explain conjunctions and prepositions with examples.
A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun and shows its relation: The cat sat under the chair.
A conjunction joins words, phrases or clauses: Ram and Shyam; I was late because the bus broke down.
"Before" and "after" can be both: before lunch (preposition); before you leave (conjunction, because a clause follows).
Exam tip
Always decide the part of speech from the word's job in that sentence, not from memory of the word alone.
Articles (a, an, the) and prepositions (in, on, at, by, for, since…) are small words, but they cause the most common errors in student writing. This topic explains when to use each article and the correct use of common prepositions of time, place and direction. Questions usually ask you to fill in the blanks or correct errors.
Key points
A and an are indefinite articles; they are used with singular countable nouns mentioned for the first time or in a general sense.
Use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound: a university, a one-rupee coin, an hour, an MLA, an honest man.
The is the definite article; it points to a particular or already known thing: Close the door.
Use the with unique things (the sun, the earth), rivers, seas and oceans (the Godavari, the Arabian Sea), mountain ranges (the Himalayas), holy books (the Gita), superlatives (the best), ordinals (the first), and musical instruments (play the flute).
Do not use an article with names of people, cities, most countries, languages, meals and plural/uncountable nouns used generally: Honesty is the best policy. Exceptions with countries: the USA, the UK.
At is used for an exact time and a point: at 6 o'clock, at the station.
On is used for days and dates and surfaces: on Monday, on 15 August, on the table.
In is used for months, years, seasons, parts of the day and enclosed spaces: in May, in 2024, in the morning, in the room.
Since goes with a point of time, for with a period: since 2019, for five years.
Between is for two, among for more than two.
Into shows movement inside; in shows position: He jumped into the well. He is in the well.
Some verbs and adjectives take fixed prepositions: depend on, good at, afraid of, interested in, married to, angry with a person / at a thing.
Important terms
Article – a word that limits a noun (a, an, the).
Indefinite article – a/an, for any one person or thing.
Definite article – the, for a particular person or thing.
Zero article – no article used before a noun.
Preposition – a word that shows the relation of a noun or pronoun with another word.
Fixed preposition – a preposition that always follows a certain word.
Language study
Preposition
Time
Place
at
at 7 a.m., at noon, at night
at the gate, at home
on
on Sunday, on 26 January
on the wall, on the bus
in
in June, in 2025, in summer
in Nagpur, in the box
by
by Friday (not later than)
by the river (near)
till/until
till evening
—
5 important questions
Q1. Fill in the blanks with a, an or the: (a) He is ___ honest man. (b) She is ___ European. (c) ___ Ganga is a holy river.
(a) an (silent h) (b) a (sounds "yoo") (c) The (river names take "the").
Q2. Correct the sentence: "He has been ill since three days."
"He has been ill for three days." For is used with a period of time.
Q3. Explain the uses of the definite article "the" with examples.
Something already mentioned: I saw a dog. The dog was hungry.
Unique objects: the sun, the moon, the sky.
Rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges: the Krishna, the Indian Ocean, the Satpuras.
Superlatives and ordinals: the tallest boy, the second chapter.
A class as a whole: The cow is a useful animal.
Musical instruments and newspapers: plays the sitar; reads the Lokmat.
In = position (She is in the hall); into = movement (She ran into the hall).
Between = two (between Pune and Mumbai); among = more than two (sweets among the children).
Since = point of time (since Monday); for = length of time (for a week).
All three pairs are often tested in error correction.
Q5. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions.
(a) She is good ___ maths. (b) The train arrives ___ 5 p.m. (c) We depend ___ farmers. (d) He was born ___ 2005. (e) The book is ___ the table. Answers: (a) at (b) at (c) on (d) in (e) on.
Exam tip
For a/an, say the word aloud: the first sound decides, not the first letter. For prepositions, learn the fixed pairs (afraid of, fond of, proud of, superior to) by heart.
Tense shows the time of an action: present, past or future. Each time has four forms (aspects): simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous, which gives twelve tense forms. Correct tense use is tested in "do as directed" and error-correction questions.
Key points
Three times × four aspects = 12 tense forms.
Simple shows a habit, fact or completed single action.
Continuous (progressive) shows an action in progress: be + verb-ing.
Perfect shows an action completed before a point of time: have/has/had + past participle.
Perfect continuous shows an action that started earlier and is still going on (or went on for some time): have been/had been + verb-ing.
In simple present, a third-person singular subject takes -s/-es: She writes.
Use simple past with definite past time words (yesterday, in 2020, last week), not present perfect.
Use present perfect with already, yet, just, ever, never, since, for (time up to now).
Since is used with a point of time (since 2019); for with a period of time (for three years).
Stative verbs (know, like, believe, own) are not normally used in continuous form.
Important terms
Tense – verb form showing time.
Aspect – whether the action is complete, ongoing, or both.
Auxiliary verb – helping verb: be, have, do, will.
Past participle – third form of the verb: written, gone, played.
Stative verb – verb showing a state, not an action.
Language study
Tense
Structure
Example
Simple present
V1 / V1+s
He reads daily.
Present continuous
is/am/are + V-ing
He is reading now.
Present perfect
has/have + V3
He has read the book.
Present perfect continuous
has/have been + V-ing
He has been reading since 6 a.m.
Simple past
V2
He read it yesterday.
Past continuous
was/were + V-ing
He was reading when I came.
Past perfect
had + V3
He had read it before the test.
Past perfect continuous
had been + V-ing
He had been reading for an hour.
Simple future
will + V1
He will read tomorrow.
Future continuous
will be + V-ing
He will be reading at 8 p.m.
Future perfect
will have + V3
He will have read it by Monday.
Future perfect continuous
will have been + V-ing
By May he will have been studying here for a year.
5 important questions
Q1. Correct the sentence: "I have seen him yesterday."
"I saw him yesterday." A definite past time (yesterday) needs the simple past, not the present perfect.
Q2. Fill in with since or for: (a) She has lived here ___ 2015. (b) It has rained ___ two hours.
(a) since (a point of time). (b) for (a period of time).
Q3. Explain the uses of the simple present tense with examples.
Habits: I walk every morning.
Universal truths: The sun rises in the east.
Fixed timetables: The train leaves at 6 p.m.
Headlines and commentary: India wins the match.
In time and condition clauses for the future: If it rains, we will stay home.
Q4. Distinguish between the simple past and the present perfect.
Simple past: action finished at a definite past time – I met her in 2022.
Present perfect: past action connected to the present; no definite time – I have met her.
Subject-verb agreement (concord) means the verb must agree with its subject in number and person. A singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb. Errors of concord are among the most frequent in university "spot the error" and "correct the sentence" questions.
Key points
Singular subject → singular verb: The boy plays. Plural subject → plural verb: The boys play.
Two subjects joined by and take a plural verb: Ram and Shyam are friends.
But if the two nouns name one person or one idea, use a singular verb: The secretary and treasurer has arrived (one person). Bread and butter is my breakfast.
With either…or / neither…nor / or / nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject: Neither the teacher nor the students were present.
Words between the subject and verb do not change the verb: The box of pencils is on the desk. The leader, along with his followers, was arrested.
Each, every, everyone, everybody, nobody, someone, either, neither take a singular verb: Each of the students has a book.
Collective nouns (team, jury, family, committee) take a singular verb when acting as one unit and a plural verb when members act separately: The jury has given its verdict. The jury are divided in their opinions.
Some nouns look plural but are singular: news, mathematics, physics, economics (as a subject): The news is good.
Some nouns are always plural: scissors, trousers, spectacles, cattle, police: The police have caught the thief.
A number of takes a plural verb; the number of takes a singular verb.
Amounts of time, money and distance as one unit take a singular verb: Ten kilometres is a long walk.
One of + plural noun takes a singular verb: One of my friends is a doctor.
Important terms
Concord – agreement between subject and verb.
Number – singular or plural.
Person – first (I, we), second (you), third (he, she, it, they).
Collective noun – a noun naming a group as one unit.
Proximity rule – the verb agrees with the nearer subject (with or/nor).
Language study
Subject
Verb
Example
He/She/It/singular noun
-s form, is, was, has
She writes neatly.
I/We/You/They/plural noun
base form, are, were, have
They write neatly.
Each/Every/Everyone
singular
Everyone is happy.
A number of
plural
A number of boys were absent.
The number of
singular
The number of boys is small.
5 important questions
Q1. Correct the sentence: "One of the boys were absent."
"One of the boys was absent." The subject is "one", which is singular.
Q2. Choose the correct verb: "Neither Ravi nor his friends (is/are) coming."
"are" – the verb agrees with the nearer subject, "friends".
Q3. What is concord? Explain any four rules with examples.
Concord means the verb agrees with the subject in number and person.
Subjects joined by "and" take a plural verb: Sita and Gita are sisters.
Either/neither…or/nor: verb agrees with the nearer subject: Either you or he is wrong.
Each/every/everyone: singular verb: Every student has a uniform.
Words like "along with, as well as, with" do not affect the verb: The captain, with his players, was honoured.
Q4. Explain the use of verbs with collective nouns and with nouns like "news" and "scissors".
A collective noun as one unit takes a singular verb: The committee has met.
When members act separately, a plural verb is used: The committee are quarrelling among themselves.
Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning: news, physics, measles – singular verb.
Nouns used only in the plural: scissors, trousers, goods – plural verb (The scissors are sharp; a pair of scissors is…).
Q5. Correct the errors: (a) Bread and butter are good food. (b) Each of them have a pen. (c) The cattle is grazing. (d) A number of students was late.
(a) is (b) has (c) are (d) were.
Exam tip
First find the real subject (the headword), ignoring phrases like "of the boys" or "along with". Then decide whether it is singular or plural.
Voice shows whether the subject does the action (active) or receives it (passive). We use the passive when the doer is unknown, unimportant or obvious, or when we want to focus on the action. Changing voice is a common "do as directed" question.
Key points
Active: Subject + verb + object. The farmer grows rice.
Passive: Object becomes subject + form of be + past participle (+ by + doer). Rice is grown by the farmer.
Only transitive verbs (verbs with an object) can be changed into the passive.
The tense of be must match the tense of the active verb.
Pronouns change case: I → me, we → us, he → him, she → her, they → them.
"By + doer" is often dropped when the doer is not important: The bridge was built in 1990.
Continuous passives use being: is being, was being.
Perfect passives use been: has been, had been, will have been.
Modals: modal + be + V3: can be done, must be finished.
Imperative sentences use let: "Open the door." → Let the door be opened.
Passive voice is common in science reports, news and official notices.
Important terms
Active voice – subject performs the action.
Passive voice – subject receives the action.
Agent – the doer of the action, shown with "by" in the passive.
Transitive verb – a verb that takes an object (write, eat, build).
Intransitive verb – a verb with no object (sleep, arrive); it has no passive.
Language study
Tense
Active
Passive
Simple present
She writes a letter.
A letter is written by her.
Present continuous
She is writing a letter.
A letter is being written by her.
Present perfect
She has written a letter.
A letter has been written by her.
Simple past
She wrote a letter.
A letter was written by her.
Past continuous
She was writing a letter.
A letter was being written by her.
Past perfect
She had written a letter.
A letter had been written by her.
Simple future
She will write a letter.
A letter will be written by her.
Modal
She can write a letter.
A letter can be written by her.
Questions: "Did he paint this?" → Was this painted by him? "Who broke the glass?" → By whom was the glass broken?
Two objects: "He gave me a book." → I was given a book by him. or A book was given to me by him.
5 important questions
Q1. Change into passive: "The police arrested the thief."
The thief was arrested by the police.
Q2. Why can't "The baby slept" be changed into the passive?
"Slept" is an intransitive verb; it has no object. Only a verb with an object can become passive.
Q3. Explain the rules for changing active voice into passive voice.
Make the object of the active sentence the subject.
Use the correct form of be according to the tense (is/are/was/were/has been, etc.).
Use the past participle (V3) of the main verb.
Put the active subject after "by" (change pronoun case), or drop it if unimportant.
Keep the meaning and tense the same.
Q4. Change the voice: (a) Who wrote Gitanjali? (b) Shut the window. (c) They are building a new road.
(a) By whom was Gitanjali written? (b) Let the window be shut. (c) A new road is being built (by them).
Q5. When is the passive voice preferred? Give examples.
When the doer is unknown: My bicycle was stolen.
When the doer is obvious: The thief was arrested. (by the police)
To focus on the action or result: The results will be declared on Monday.
In formal and scientific writing: The solution was heated to 80°C.
To sound polite or neutral in notices: Visitors are requested to keep silence.
Exam tip
First find the tense of the active verb, then pick the matching form of be. Most mistakes come from using the wrong tense of be.
Transformation of sentences means changing the form of a sentence without changing its meaning. Common types are interchange of degrees of comparison, affirmative ↔ negative, assertive ↔ interrogative, exclamatory ↔ assertive, and simple ↔ compound ↔ complex. These are standard "do as directed" items in compulsory English papers.
Key points
The meaning must remain the same; only the structure changes.
Degrees of comparison: positive (as tall as), comparative (taller than), superlative (the tallest).
Superlative → comparative → positive: Mumbai is the largest city in Maharashtra. → Mumbai is larger than any other city in Maharashtra. → No other city in Maharashtra is as large as Mumbai.
Affirmative → negative: use the opposite word with "not": He is honest. → He is not dishonest. Always → never: She always works hard. → She never fails to work hard.
"Only" becomes "none but" (persons) or "nothing but" (things): Only Ravi passed. → None but Ravi passed.
Assertive → interrogative: a positive statement becomes a negative question and vice versa: He is a fool. → Isn't he a fool? Nobody can do this. → Who can do this?
Exclamatory → assertive: What a beautiful sight it is! → It is a very beautiful sight.
A simple sentence has one finite verb; a compound sentence joins two main clauses with and, but, or, so; a complex sentence has a main clause and a subordinate clause (because, when, who, if, that).
Simple: Being tired, he slept. Compound: He was tired, so he slept. Complex: As he was tired, he slept.
"Too…to" can become "so…that…not": He is too weak to walk. → He is so weak that he cannot walk.
"As soon as" ↔ "No sooner…than": As soon as he came, it rained. → No sooner did he come than it rained.
Important terms
Transformation – change of form, not meaning.
Positive / comparative / superlative – three degrees of adjectives.
Main clause – a clause that can stand alone.
Subordinate clause – a clause that depends on the main clause.
Conjunction – a joining word (and, but, because).
Language study
From
To
Example
Too…to
so…that…not
too hot to drink → so hot that we cannot drink it
Not only…but also
and / as well as
Not only Ram but also Sita came → Ram as well as Sita came
If…not
Unless
If you do not work, you will fail → Unless you work, you will fail
Simple (participle)
Complex (since/as)
Seeing the police, he ran → When he saw the police, he ran
5 important questions
Q1. Change into the positive degree: "Gold is more precious than silver."
Silver is not as precious as gold.
Q2. Rewrite using "No sooner…than": "As soon as the bell rang, the students left."
No sooner did the bell ring than the students left.
Q3. Explain interchange of degrees of comparison with examples.
Superlative: Kalsubai is the highest peak in Maharashtra.
Comparative: Kalsubai is higher than any other peak in Maharashtra.
Positive: No other peak in Maharashtra is as high as Kalsubai.
For "one of the + superlative": Tagore was one of the greatest poets. → Tagore was greater than most other poets. → Very few poets were as great as Tagore.
Q4. Distinguish simple, compound and complex sentences with examples.
Simple: one finite verb – Due to rain, the match was cancelled.
Compound: two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction – It rained, so the match was cancelled.
Complex: main clause + subordinate clause – The match was cancelled because it rained.
Simple → complex: expand a phrase into a clause; complex → compound: replace the subordinator with and/but/so.
Q5. Do as directed: (a) Only the brave deserve the fair. (negative) (b) What a lovely garden! (assertive) (c) Everyone loves his country. (interrogative)
(a) None but the brave deserve the fair. (b) It is a very lovely garden. (c) Who does not love his country?
Exam tip
After transforming, read both sentences once more and check the tense and meaning are unchanged. Keep the original words as far as possible; examiners deduct marks for changed meaning.
Speaking for Different Purposes: Greeting, Requests and Permission
Quick summary
Spoken English is used for everyday purposes such as greeting, introducing, asking for information, seeking permission, making requests and suggestions, agreeing or disagreeing and apologising. Each purpose has polite, formal and informal expressions. Papers ask you to write short dialogues or give suitable expressions for a situation.
Key points
Greeting: Good morning / Hello / Hi (informal). Reply in the same way. Taking leave: Goodbye, See you later, Have a nice day.
Introducing yourself: "Hello, I'm Priya Patil. I'm a first-year BA student from Bhandara." Introducing others: "May I introduce my friend Amit? Amit, this is Prof. Deshmukh."
Asking for information: Could you tell me…? Do you know where…? Excuse me, which bus goes to…?
Seeking permission: May I come in, sir? Could I use your phone? Would you mind if I opened the window? Replies: Sure / Of course / I'm afraid not.
Making requests: Could you please…? Would you mind helping me…? Can you lend me…? ("Would" and "could" are more polite than "can".)
Making suggestions: Let's…, Why don't we…? How about…? Shall we…? You could…
Agreeing: I agree with you. Exactly. That's right. Partly agreeing: You may be right, but… I agree up to a point. Disagreeing politely: I'm sorry, but I don't think so. I see your point, however…
Apologising: I'm sorry for being late. I apologise for the mistake. Replies: That's all right. Never mind. No problem.
Thanking: Thank you very much. Thanks a lot. Replies: You're welcome. My pleasure.
Telephone etiquette: greet, give your name, state the purpose, speak clearly, and close politely ("Thank you for calling").
Formal situations (office, teacher, interview) need polite forms; informal ones (friends) allow short forms.
Tone, body language and eye contact matter as much as words.
Important terms
Function – the purpose for which language is used.
Register – the level of formality (formal/informal).
Politeness marker – words like please, could, would, may.
Etiquette – accepted rules of polite behaviour.
Dialogue – a conversation between two or more people.
Language study
Purpose
Formal
Informal
Permission
May I leave early today, sir?
Can I go now?
Request
Would you kindly sign this form?
Sign this, please.
Suggestion
I would suggest that we start early.
Let's start early.
Disagreement
I'm afraid I can't agree with that.
No way!
Apology
Please accept my apologies.
Sorry!
5 important questions
Q1. How would you seek permission from your principal to leave college early?
"Excuse me, sir. May I leave college early today? I have to accompany my mother to the hospital." Use "May I" and give a reason.
Q2. Give two polite ways of disagreeing.
"I'm sorry, but I see it differently." / "That's a good point, but I'm not sure I agree."
Q3. Write a dialogue between a student and a librarian about borrowing a book.
Student: Good morning, madam. Could you tell me if "Train to Pakistan" is available?
Librarian: Good morning. Let me check… Yes, one copy is available.
Student: May I borrow it for a week?
Librarian: Sure. Please show your library card. Return it by next Monday.
Student: Thank you very much, madam.
Librarian: You're welcome.
Q4. Explain the expressions used for making requests and suggestions.
Requests: Can/Could/Would you…? Would you mind + -ing? I wonder if you could…
"Could" and "would" sound more polite than "can".
Suggestions: Let's…, Shall we…? Why don't we…? How about + -ing? You'd better…
Accepting: That's a good idea. Rejecting: I'd rather not, thanks.
Use a polite tone and "please" in formal situations.
Q5. What is telephone etiquette? Mention its main points.
Greet and identify yourself: "Good afternoon, this is Rahul speaking."
State the purpose briefly.
Speak clearly and at a moderate speed; don't shout.
Listen carefully; note down important details.
Ask politely to hold or call back if needed.
End politely: "Thank you. Have a nice day."
Exam tip
In dialogue questions, give each speaker 4–6 lines, use polite markers (please, could, may) and end with thanks. Name the speakers clearly.