Philosophy तत्वज्ञान

Class 11 Arts · 6 chapters · 6 with notes

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Chapters

1What is Philosophy? Why Philosophy?Notes
2What Is? How do we know? What to do?Notes
3Appearances are deceptiveNotes
4Getting to know, 'Knowing'?Notes
5Freedom and Moral RulesNotes
6Science, Technology and PhilosophyNotes

Class 11 Arts · Philosophy · Chapter 1

What is Philosophy? Why Philosophy?

Quick summary

Humans have always wondered about the universe and about themselves. This first chapter explains how that wonder led to myths, religion, philosophy, science and art, what philosophy studies, how it differs from science, its main methods (analysis, dialogue, vada, khandana-mandana, dialectics, method of doubt), the meaning of the words "philosophy", "tattvajnana" and "darshana", and why philosophy is valuable.

Key points

Curiosity ("What is this? Why is it so?") is natural to humans. Answers came in many forms: mythology, religion, philosophy, science and art.
Myths explained nature through stories – the Norse tale of Thor riding his goat-drawn chariot and making thunder, and the Rigvedic tale of Indra killing Vritra to release water. The idea of someone who lays down the laws of nature led to the idea of God.
Philosophy answers questions with reason. Early philosophers searched for the fundamental principle of the universe (Thales – water, Anaximenes – air).
Philosophy and science ask similar questions, but philosophy relies only on reason, while science adds instruments and technology. That is why philosophy is called the mother of all sciences.
Science deals with facts ("what is"); philosophy also deals with values ("how it should be"). Science explains a rainbow; philosophy asks what beauty is. Psychology explains why people lie; philosophy asks whether lying is wrong.
Philosophy studies four relationships: human–nature, individual–society, oneself with oneself, and human with anything beyond the perceptible world (if any).
Three central questions: What is? How do we know? What should we do?
Critical examination is the essence of philosophical method.
Method of analysis: breaking a concept (e.g. democracy) into its parts. Socrates used it to reach precise definitions; 20th-century analytical philosophy said analysis is the only job of philosophy.
Method of dialogue: Socrates (born Athens, 470 BCE, "father of Western philosophy") questioned people – "What is justice?" His maxim: "An unexamined life is not worth living." Indian examples: Uddalaka and Shwetaketu (Chhandogya Upanishad – salt in water, "That art thou"), Maitreyi and Yadnyavalkya (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad), and Milindapanha.
Vada (debate) in a vadasabha: vadi presents his paksha, prativadi argues against it, prashnikas ask questions, the sabhapati moderates, and the conclusion is the siddhanta. "Vade vade jayate tattvabodhah." Debate to win is jalpa; only refuting without one's own view is vitanda.
Khandana-mandana: state the opponent's view (purvapaksha), refute it (khandana), then establish one's own view (uttarapaksha, mandana).
Dialectical method (West): a third, better view emerges from two opposing views.
Method of doubt: Descartes doubted everything until he reached "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum).
"Philosophy" = Greek philo (love) + sophia (wisdom): love of wisdom. Wisdom is more than intelligence or knowledge; it includes moral awareness. Tattvajnana = knowledge of principles (tattva); each Indian system is a darshana, a complete vision of life.

Important terms

Essence – the common nature shared by all things of one kind (tree-ness).
Vada / Jalpa / Vitanda – debate for truth / debate to win / only refuting.
Purvapaksha – the opponent's view stated first.
Siddhanta – the final conclusion.
Skepticism – denial that certain knowledge is possible.

Key facts

Method	Associated with
Analysis	Socrates; analytical philosophy
Dialogue	Socrates; Upanishads; Milindapanha
Vada, khandana-mandana	Indian tradition
Dialectical method	Western tradition
Method of doubt	Rene Descartes

5 important questions

Q1. What is the etymological meaning of "philosophy"?

It comes from the Greek "philo" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom), so philosophy means the love of wisdom.

Q2. Distinguish between vada and jalpa.

Vada is a debate held to find the truth. Jalpa is a competitive debate where the aim is to win.

Q3. Explain the difference between philosophy and science.

Both arise from curiosity. Science studies facts and uses observation, experiments and instruments along with reason. Philosophy uses reason alone and also studies values, concepts and questions science cannot settle, like the nature of knowledge, beauty and right and wrong.

Q4. Explain the method of vada.

A topic is chosen. The vadi presents his view, the prativadi gives counter-arguments and his own view, prashnikas ask questions and the sabhapati conducts the session. Defeat is accepted honestly and the conclusion reached is the siddhanta.

Q5. Explain Descartes' method of doubt.

In an age of skepticism, Descartes doubted everything that could be doubted, even the senses. He found that he could not doubt that he was doubting, i.e. thinking. So he reached the certain truth "I think, therefore I am." Here doubt is a tool, not something negative.

Exam tip

Learn each method with its thinker or text; "match the pairs" and "fill in the blanks" questions are often set from this chapter.

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What Is? How do we know? What to do? →

Class 11 Arts · Philosophy · Chapter 2

What Is? How do we know? What to do?

Quick summary

Unlike maths or physics, philosophy changes with the society and culture it grows in. Still, three questions appear in every age and place: What is? How do we know? What should we do? These questions grow into the three main branches – metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. The chapter also introduces logic and aesthetics, the astika and nastika darshanas, and the special features of Indian and Western philosophy.

Key points

A triangle's angles add up to 180° everywhere, but philosophical questions and answers vary with space, time and culture, like music.
Indian saints shared philosophy through popular forms like abhanga, bharud and gavlan. Dnyaneshwar said "He vishwachi maze ghar" (the world is my home) and gave Chidvilasvada. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar revived Buddhism and explained Dhamma. Rabindranath Tagore critically examined nationalism.
Existentialism in 20th-century Europe, after two world wars, asked about the meaning of human existence. Environmental ethics arose from the ecological crisis. Neuroscience, cognitive science, AI and social media again raise "What does it mean to be human?"
What is? Our sense experience depends on conditions (distance, light), so it can mislead – illusions and hallucinations ("mountains look blue from far"). The study of reality (sat) is metaphysics.
How do we know? What are the means and types of knowledge? This is epistemology.
What to do? What is morally good or right? Our choices depend on our values (e.g. whether we think all living beings have a right to life). This is ethics.
"Mimamsa" comes from the root "man" – to think, examine and search.
Logic: Aristotle is the father of logic. It was once called "the science of the laws of thought", later "the science of reasoning".
Aesthetics studies beauty and art: is beauty in the object or in the eye of the beholder? Plato and Aristotle discussed it; modern thinkers reject that beauty is only in the object.
Nine principal Indian darshanas: six astika (accept the authority of the Vedas) – Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) and Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa); three nastika (reject it) – Charvaka, Jaina, Bauddha.
Indian philosophy is closely tied to life: the purpose of life, suffering and freedom from it, purusharthas, atma, rebirth and the law of karma. Darshanas grew side by side and debated each other respectfully through vada.
Western schools developed one after another. Ancient thinkers studied the material world; with modern science philosophy took an epistemological turn. In modern times the human became central, and applied ethics arose (environmental, medical, business, media ethics).

Important terms

Metaphysics – study of what is real (sat).
Epistemology – study of knowledge and its means.
Ethics – study of moral good and right conduct.
Logic – the science of reasoning.
Aesthetics – study of beauty and art.
Astika / Nastika – darshanas that accept / reject Vedic authority.

Key facts

Question	Branch
What is?	Metaphysics
How do we know?	Epistemology
What to do?	Ethics
Is the reasoning correct?	Logic (Aristotle – father)
What is beautiful?	Aesthetics

Astika (6)	Nastika (3)
Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta	Charvaka, Jaina, Bauddha

5 important questions

Q1. What is astika darshana?

A darshana that accepts the authority of the Vedas, e.g. Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

Q2. Who is called the father of logic? How is logic defined?

Aristotle. Logic was first called the science of the laws of thought, and later the science of reasoning.

Q3. Explain the three basic questions of philosophy.

"What is?" asks about reality and leads to metaphysics. "How do we know?" asks about the means and types of knowledge and leads to epistemology. "What to do?" asks what is morally right and leads to ethics.

Q4. Explain the nature of Indian philosophy.

It is an all-round reflection on life. It focuses on the purpose of life, suffering and liberation, and is linked with purusharthas, atma, rebirth and karma. Many darshanas grew in parallel and corrected their views through respectful debate.

Q5. "Philosophy changes with culture." Explain.

Unlike scientific truths, philosophical questions and answers depend on time, place and circumstances. Cultures that believe in another world think of this world with reference to it. Events like the world wars produced existentialism, and the ecological crisis produced environmental ethics.

Exam tip

Learn the six astika and three nastika darshanas in order, and match each question with its branch.

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English medium · free PDF, ebalbharati.in

← What is Philosophy? Why Philosophy?Appearances are deceptive →

Class 11 Arts · Philosophy · Chapter 3

Appearances are deceptive

Quick summary

Proverbs like "All that glitters is not gold" warn us not to trust appearances. Philosophy turns this warning into a careful question: how do we tell what is really there from what only seems to be? This chapter explains the difference between "what is" and "what we see", the meaning of sat (the real), permanence and impermanence, theories about the number and nature of reality, and theistic and atheistic views.

Key points

Our five senses tell us about objects, but things often appear different from what they are. Insects and humans even see the same flower differently.
Advaita Vedanta gives two famous analogies (nyaya): rajjusarpa nyaya – a rope seen as a snake in dim light; shuktirajat nyaya – a shining shell (shukti) seen as silver (rajat). We are deceived because of the similarity between what seems and what is.
Metaphysics asks "What is?", and this is always linked to the epistemological question "How do we know?". Our experience is the only base for separating real from unreal.
Experience is subjective – it varies from person to person – but the object does not change with the experiencer. Water may taste sour to someone with fever, but the sourness is unreal because it does not belong to the water.
What stays the same under all conditions is the true nature (sat-svarupa): water is always two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
Uddalaka teaches Shwetaketu (Chhandogya Upanishad): by knowing one lump of clay, all things made of clay are known; the changes are only names, clay alone is real. Likewise, gold behind ornaments and iron behind tools.
Creation, sustenance and dissolution are the three basic forms of change. Some thinkers held that only the unchanging is real; others held that change is the only permanent law.
We feel we are the same person from birth though we change; the unchanging "I" is called atma (soul). Those who deny any permanent principle deny the soul.
Theories of number: monism (Parmenides, Advaita Vedanta, Spinoza, Hegel), dualism (Sankhya, Descartes), pluralism (Empedocles, Jaina, Leibniz).
Theories of nature: idealism (Vedanta, Berkeley, Hegel, Bradley), materialism (Charvaka, Democritus, Marxism), realism (Jaina, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Purva Mimamsa, Locke, Russell, Moore).
A materialist must explain how matter produces consciousness; an idealist must explain how matter comes from consciousness.
Motion: some say the fundamental elements move by themselves according to physical laws, without purpose. Others say matter is not active by itself and an all-powerful God creates the world from it (theism). Not all schools accept God (atheism) – e.g. Charvaka, Jaina and Bauddha do not accept a creator God.

Important terms

Sat – that which truly exists; the real.
Rajjusarpa nyaya – the rope-snake analogy.
Shuktirajat nyaya – the shell-silver analogy.
Subjective / Objective – depending on the person / independent of the person.
Theism / Atheism – belief / disbelief in a creator God.

Key facts

Theory	Thinkers / darshanas
Monism	Parmenides, Advaita Vedanta, Spinoza, Hegel
Dualism	Sankhya, Descartes
Pluralism	Empedocles, Jaina, Leibniz
Idealism	Vedanta, Berkeley, Hegel, Bradley
Materialism	Charvaka, Democritus, Marxism
Realism	Jaina, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Purva Mimamsa, Locke, Russell, Moore

5 important questions

Q1. What is rajjusarpa nyaya?

In dim light a rope lying at a distance looks like a snake and frightens us. Advaita uses this to show that what appears is not always what is.

Q2. Why is the sour taste of water for a sick person called unreal?

Because the sourness belongs to the person's condition (fever), not to the water. It changes with the experiencer, so it is not the water's real nature.

Q3. Explain the difference between "what is" and "what we see".

Our senses and conditions like distance and light shape what we see, so experience is subjective and can mislead (blue mountains, silver-looking shell). What is real does not change with the experiencer. Philosophy examines experience carefully to find this real nature.

Q4. Explain the debate on permanence and impermanence.

Some philosophers say the changing world depends on something unchanging, which alone is real; for them the soul is permanent. Others say change itself is the nature of the world and nothing is permanent; they reject a permanent soul. Our own experience of being "the same me who has changed" shows both sides.

Q5. Explain idealism, materialism and realism with examples.

Idealism: reality is conscious (Vedanta, Berkeley). Materialism: reality is matter (Charvaka, Democritus). Realism: both matter and consciousness exist independently (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Jaina, Locke).

Exam tip

Learn both tables (number and nature of reality); classification questions are common.

📘 Official textbook PDF

English medium · free PDF, ebalbharati.in

← What Is? How do we know? What to do?Getting to know, 'Knowing'? →

Class 11 Arts · Philosophy · Chapter 4

Getting to know, 'Knowing'?

Quick summary

We use the word "know" all the time, but rarely ask what knowing really is. This chapter, from epistemology, asks two questions: What is knowledge? and What are its sources? It separates knowledge from information, belief and opinion, explains Plato's view, introduces sources like sense perception, testimony, memory and intellect, and distinguishes "knowing how" from "knowing that".

Key points

Repeating words without understanding is "parroting". The story of Einstein's chauffeur shows that memorised answers are not real understanding.
Knowledge is born when the knower comes into contact with the known, through the senses and the intellect.
Information is not knowledge. Information is raw material; it becomes knowledge only when we process, think about and organise it. Otherwise books, encyclopaedias or Google would be the most knowledgeable!
Online information can be false; we must use trustworthy sources. Falsehood is never called knowledge.
"I believe…", "I think…", "In my opinion…" show doubt; "I know…" claims truth and asks others to accept it, so it must be backed by good reasons (e.g. "I know Kalidasa wrote Shakuntal because I studied it in Sanskrit").
Plato: statements that change with time, place or person ("leaves are green") are only belief/opinion; statements always true ("if A > B and B > C, then A > C") are knowledge.
Sense perception (pratyaksha pramana): eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin give knowledge of the world; all knowledge of the material world is finally based on it, though appearances can deceive.
Testimony: we must trust experts, knowledgeable persons and reliable books (like textbooks).
Memory gives knowledge of the past, but imagination can mix with it and create false memories.
Intellect is needed for abstract laws of geometry, maths and logic, and for understanding concepts and values like friendship, health and keeping one's word.
Intellect is not intuition. A "gut feeling" or premonition cannot answer "How did you know?", and relying on it is dangerous.
We seek knowledge for its own sake and also to improve our lives.
Knowing how = knowledge of a skill (a mechanic repairing a bike, "I know how to use Google"); it is practical. Knowing that = knowledge of facts ("I know that metals expand when heated"); this is what epistemology studies.

Important terms

Epistemology – branch of philosophy that studies knowledge.
Knower / Known – the one who knows / the object known.
Information – raw facts collected but not yet processed.
Belief / Opinion – what we hold true without certainty.
Pratyaksha pramana – sense perception as a source of knowledge.
Knowing how / Knowing that – skill-knowledge / fact-knowledge.

Key facts

Source	What it gives	Caution
Sense perception	knowledge of the material world	appearances deceive
Testimony	knowledge from experts and texts	check reliability
Memory	knowledge of the past	imagination may mix in
Intellect	abstract laws, concepts, values	not the same as intuition

5 important questions

Q1. What is "parroting"?

Repeating words or answers without understanding their meaning, like a trained parrot imitating human speech.

Q2. Distinguish between "knowing how" and "knowing that".

Knowing how is skill-knowledge used in practice, e.g. riding a bicycle. Knowing that is knowledge of facts expressed in statements, e.g. "water boils at 100 °C at sea level". Epistemology studies "knowing that".

Q3. Explain the difference between information and knowledge.

Information is collected material from reading, listening or surfing. It becomes knowledge only when the intellect processes, connects and organises it. A person who only stores information is not knowledgeable, and false information is never knowledge.

Q4. Explain Plato's distinction between knowledge and belief.

For Plato, statements whose truth changes with time, place or person (like "trees are shady") are beliefs. Statements that are always and everywhere true (like mathematical relations) are knowledge. Falsehood cannot be knowledge.

Q5. Why is intuition not a reliable source of knowledge?

A feeling that something will happen comes without evidence or reasoning. When asked "How did you know?", there is no convincing answer, and a correct guess may be only a coincidence. So depending on it is dangerous.

Exam tip

Give a daily-life example with every distinction (information/knowledge, belief/knowledge, how/that); examiners reward examples.

📘 Official textbook PDF

English medium · free PDF, ebalbharati.in

← Appearances are deceptive Freedom and Moral Rules →

Class 11 Arts · Philosophy · Chapter 5

Freedom and Moral Rules

Quick summary

Rules can feel boring, yet whatever we do affects others. This chapter introduces ethics: what it studies, the difference between voluntary and involuntary actions, why free will brings responsibility, why society needs moral rules, virtue-based ethics, and the concept and types of values, including the moral and non-moral uses of words like good, right and duty.

Key points

Ethics asks "What should I do? How should I behave?". Psychology describes behaviour; ethics evaluates it as right or wrong.
Involuntary actions happen without our will or awareness – breathing, blood circulation, blinking when dust enters the eye. Ethics does not judge them.
Voluntary actions are done consciously and by choice. They come from free will. Animals mostly follow instincts; humans can control their urges and choose.
Free will lets us do good or evil, so we are responsible for the results of our chosen actions. Freedom and responsibility always go together. Jesus said, "Forgive them, Father, for they know not what they do."
"Man is a rational animal" and a social being. Life in society needs rules at home, school, the playground and public places; without them life is chaotic and the powerful exploit the weak ("might makes right"). A moral code keeps the balance between individual freedom and others' interests.
Western ethics has three major theories: utilitarianism, deontology and virtue-based ethics. The first two judge acts; virtue ethics focuses on the person and on building good character. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle supported it; "virtue" means an excellent trait of character.
Value means worth or merit, not just price. There are personal, economic, social, political, cultural, religious, spiritual, ethical and aesthetic values; ethics mainly studies moral values.
Moral – judged by ethical standards; immoral – against morality (still inside its scope); amoral (non-moral) – outside morality, e.g. a cell phone.
"Good" is non-moral in "a good knife" (sharp), "good food" (tasty, fresh, nutritious), "a good sportsman"; it is moral in "a good man".
"Right" is non-moral in "the right instrument" or "the right way to study"; it is moral in "you did the right thing by helping your neighbour".
Intrinsic value – valued for itself (e.g. health, happiness); instrumental (extrinsic) value – valued as a means to something else (e.g. money).
Duty means what must be done. Ethics then studies the criteria for judging goodness and rightness.

Important terms

Voluntary action – action done knowingly and by choice.
Free will – the human ability to choose between options.
Virtue – an excellent trait of character.
Moral / Immoral / Amoral – in line with / against / outside morality.
Intrinsic / Instrumental value – value as an end / as a means.

Key facts

Pair	Meaning
Voluntary / Involuntary	by choice / automatic
Moral / Amoral use of "good"	good man / good knife
Intrinsic / Instrumental	health / money
Ethical theories (West)	utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics
Virtue ethics	Socrates, Plato, Aristotle

5 important questions

Q1. Which actions does ethics not study? Why?

Involuntary actions like breathing or blinking, because they happen automatically without choice or awareness, so no one can be praised or blamed for them.

Q2. What is an amoral value?

Value judged by usefulness, convenience or beauty, not by morality, e.g. a good mobile phone or a sharp knife.

Q3. Explain the relation between freedom and responsibility.

Voluntary actions come from free will; we choose among options. Because we choose, we must accept the results, intended or not. Without freedom there is no responsibility, and freedom without responsibility harms others.

Q4. Why are moral rules necessary?

Humans live in society and their actions affect others. Without rules, life becomes chaotic and the strong exploit the weak. Moral rules balance individual freedom with the good of others and help everyone flourish.

Q5. Explain intrinsic and instrumental values.

Intrinsic values are valued for themselves, not as a means – like health or happiness. Instrumental values are valued because they help us get something else – like money or a microscope.

Exam tip

For "moral vs non-moral", always give a pair of sentences using the same word (good man / good knife).

📘 Official textbook PDF

English medium · free PDF, ebalbharati.in

← Getting to know, 'Knowing'?Science, Technology and Philosophy →

Class 11 Arts · Philosophy · Chapter 6

Science, Technology and Philosophy

Quick summary

This chapter looks at how philosophy relates to science and technology. It explains objective, subjective and intersubjective reality, how science answers "what is" and "how do we know", the costs and problems created by technology, the beginnings of environmental philosophy (Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring") and the idea of sustainable development. It ends with Bertrand Russell's view on why philosophy still matters.

Key points

Materialist thinkers say only the material world is real and can be known only by scientific method; their ethics is also based on this outlook. Others believe there may be a reality beyond the senses and ask whether intuition or mystic experience can know it.
Objective reality can be checked by everyone through the senses and instruments. A subjective feeling belongs to one person ("I'm so happy I'm floating in the air!"). Intersubjective reality exists because many people believe in it – e.g. a bank note is only paper, but its value depends on shared belief.
Myths (like Thor's tale) once tried to explain rain; science now explains it in a way everyone can verify. Laws of nature that hold at all times and places are universal laws of nature.
Science corrects itself over time: people long believed the earth was still and the sun moved around it.
Science studies the laws of nature; technology processes physical matter using them; philosophy of science and technology analyses their nature, function and purpose.
Superstitions (quacks, sorcery, a cat crossing the path as a bad omen) continue even though science has answered many questions.
Technology always has a cost: effort, harm and waste (unwanted by-products). Electric vehicles look clean, but electricity-based technology uses up resources in ways we do not see. Simple technology creates fewer problems; complex technology creates more. A chulha affects different people differently.
The Iron Age began about four thousand years ago, and nature has been changing fast since then. Philosophy analyses the anthropocentric view where only human interests decide what is beneficial.
Rachel Carson, a marine biologist, wrote "Silent Spring" about the harm of chemical pesticides, especially DDT. It started a wide movement and led to a ban on DDT – an example linking "what is" (a web of living and non-living things), "how we know" (instruments, experiments) and "how it affects action" (the ban).
Technology must care about users, side effects and inequalities. Sensitive technology is the way to sustainable development.
Philosophy also asks whether existence has meaning, purpose and value.
Bertrand Russell: philosophy seems to have fewer definite answers because once a subject can be answered definitely it becomes a separate science (astronomy was once philosophy; Newton called his work "mathematical principles of natural philosophy").

Important terms

Objective – verifiable by everyone through senses and instruments.
Subjective – depending on an individual's feelings.
Intersubjective – existing through shared belief of many people (money).
Universal laws of nature – laws true at all times and places.
Sustainable development – development that meets needs without destroying resources for the future.

Key facts

Field	What it does
Science	studies the laws of nature
Technology	processes physical matter using those laws
Philosophy of science & technology	analyses their nature, function and purpose
Rachel Carson	"Silent Spring", against DDT
Bertrand Russell	"The Value of Philosophy"

5 important questions

Q1. What is intersubjective reality?

Reality that exists because many people believe in it, e.g. the value of a bank note, which is only paper in itself.

Q2. Who wrote "Silent Spring" and what was its effect?

Rachel Carson. It exposed the dangers of chemical pesticides like DDT, started a large environmental movement and led to the ban on DDT.

Q3. Explain the relation between science and technology.

Science discovers the laws of nature; technology applies them to process materials for human needs. New technology also gives science new instruments. Philosophy studies the purpose and effects of both.

Q4. "Every technology has a cost." Explain.

Technology gives security, comfort and entertainment, but needs effort, uses resources and creates waste and harm. Some costs are hidden, as with electric vehicles. Complex technology creates more problems, so it must be sensitive to people and nature.

Q5. Why does philosophy seem to have fewer definite answers than science, according to Russell?

Because when definite knowledge about a subject becomes possible, it separates from philosophy and becomes a science, like astronomy. Only questions without definite answers remain in philosophy, so its uncertainty is more apparent than real.

Exam tip

Learn the three kinds of reality with one example each, and remember Rachel Carson and DDT for short notes.

📘 Official textbook PDF

English medium · free PDF, ebalbharati.in

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