राज्यशास्त्र Political Science

Quick summary

Plato (c. 427–347 BCE) was a Greek philosopher, a disciple of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. He founded the Academy at Athens. In his famous book The Republic, he described an ideal state based on justice, ruled by philosopher-kings, supported by a state system of education and the communism of property and wives for the ruling classes.

Key points

• Plato's main works: The Republic, The Statesman, The Laws. The Republic is written as dialogues with Socrates as the main speaker.
• He was disturbed by the execution of Socrates (399 BCE) by Athenian democracy and by the corruption of politics; he wanted rule by knowledge.
• Theory of Ideas (Forms): the real world is the world of Ideas; the visible world is only a shadow (illustrated by the Allegory of the Cave).
• Theory of Justice: Plato saw three elements in the human soul – reason, spirit (courage) and appetite – and three classes in the state:

• Justice = each class performing its own function and not interfering in the work of others. It is a principle of harmony and specialisation.
• He rejected the traditional views of justice put forward by Cephalus, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus ("justice is the interest of the stronger") and Glaucon.
• Theory of Education: state-controlled and compulsory, for both men and women. Elementary stage (up to about 20 years: gymnastics for body, music for soul), then higher education (20–35 years: mathematics, dialectics). Those who pass become philosopher-rulers; they rule from about 50.
• Philosopher-king: "until philosophers are kings, or kings and princes have the spirit and power of philosophy… cities will never have rest from their evils."
• Communism: for the guardian classes only – no private property and no private family (communism of wives and children). Aim: to free rulers from greed and family attachment so they serve the state.
• He treated women as equal to men in ability for guardianship (with the qualification that they are weaker on average).
• In The Laws (later work) he described a "second-best state" ruled by law, with mixed constitution.
• Criticism (especially by Karl Popper in The Open Society and Its Enemies): totalitarian, ignores individual liberty, class rigidity, impractical communism; Aristotle also criticised his communism.
• Contribution: first systematic political philosophy; importance of education, justice and rule by the wise; equal opportunity for women.

Important terms

• Philosopher-king – wise ruler with true knowledge.
• Guardians – ruling and military classes in Plato's state.
• Dialectics – method of reaching truth through questions and answers.
• Communism (Platonic) – sharing of property and family by guardians.
• Ideal state – perfect state as imagined in The Republic.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is Plato's concept of a philosopher-king?

Plato believed the ideal state should be ruled by a philosopher who has true knowledge of the Good. Such a ruler, trained through long education, will rule wisely and selflessly.

Q2. What are the three classes in Plato's ideal state?

Rulers (guardians), auxiliaries (soldiers) and producers (farmers, craftsmen), matching reason, spirit and appetite in the human soul.

Q3. Explain Plato's theory of justice.

• Rejection of traditional views.
• Analogy of soul and state.
• Three classes and virtues.
• Justice = doing one's own work, non-interference.
• Justice as harmony.
• Criticism: ignores rights; supports class division.

Q4. Describe Plato's scheme of education.

• State-controlled, compulsory.
• Equal for men and women.
• Elementary: music and gymnastics.
• Higher: mathematics, dialectics.
• Tests to select rulers.
• Aim: produce philosopher-rulers.

Q5. Critically examine Plato's theory of communism.

• Communism of property and family for guardians.
• Aim: remove greed and nepotism.
• Differences from modern communism (limited to rulers; moral not economic aim).
• Criticism: against human nature, Aristotle's objections.
• Equal status of women as a positive point.

Exam tip

A table matching soul, class and virtue is the best way to explain Plato's justice quickly and clearly.

Quick summary

Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was a Greek philosopher, the student of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great. He is called the "Father of Political Science" because he studied politics in a realistic, scientific way. In his book Politics, he discussed the origin and nature of the state, classification of constitutions, citizenship, slavery, property and the causes of revolution.

Key points

• Born at Stagira (Macedonia); studied at Plato's Academy for about 20 years; founded the Lyceum at Athens (c. 335 BCE).
• He studied 158 constitutions of Greek city-states (only The Constitution of Athens survives); used inductive, comparative and historical methods.
• Main works: Politics, Nicomachean Ethics.
• Origin and nature of the state: "Man is by nature a political animal." The state grows naturally: family → village → polis (state). The state "comes into existence for the sake of life, and continues for the sake of good life".
• The state is prior to the individual (as the whole is prior to the part); one who lives outside the state is "either a beast or a god".
• Classification of governments – by number of rulers and their aim:

• He saw a cycle of change among these forms.
• Polity – a mixed constitution combining oligarchy and democracy, ruled by the middle class – was the best practicable state ("golden mean").
• Citizenship: a citizen is one who shares in the administration of justice and in holding office (deliberative or judicial). Workers, slaves, women and foreigners were excluded.
• Slavery: justified "natural slavery" – some people are by nature fit only to obey. Slaves were "living tools". This is strongly criticised today.
• Property: rejected Plato's communism; supported private property with common use. Property gives happiness and encourages generosity.
• Family: natural and necessary; criticised Plato's abolition of family.
• Revolution: general causes – desire for equality or for more privileges, profit and honour, insolence of rulers, fear, contempt, disproportionate growth of one class. Remedies – moderation, education in the spirit of the constitution, obedience to law, rotation in office, a strong middle class.
• Justice: distributive (according to merit) and corrective.
• Plato vs Aristotle: Plato idealist and deductive; Aristotle realist and inductive. Plato's ideal state vs Aristotle's best practicable state.

Important terms

• Polis – city-state.
• Polity – mixed government of the middle class.
• Golden mean – moderation between two extremes.
• Natural slavery – Aristotle's idea that some are naturally slaves.
• Inductive method – reasoning from facts to general conclusions.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why is Aristotle called the Father of Political Science?

Because he studied politics systematically and realistically, using observation and comparison of 158 constitutions. He made political science a separate, independent subject of study, while still treating politics and ethics as closely linked (the state exists for the good life).

Q2. Define a citizen according to Aristotle.

A citizen is one who has the right to share in the deliberative and judicial functions of the state – that is, to take part in making decisions and in the courts.

Q3. Explain Aristotle's classification of governments.

• Basis: number of rulers and aim.
• Pure: monarchy, aristocracy, polity.
• Perverted: tyranny, oligarchy, democracy.
• Cycle of change.
• Polity as the best practicable.

Q4. Discuss Aristotle's theory of revolution.

• Meaning: change of constitution or rulers.
• General causes.
• Causes in different governments.
• Remedies.
• Relevance today.

Q5. Compare Plato and Aristotle.

• Idealist vs realist.
• Deductive vs inductive method.
• Communism vs private property.
• Ideal state vs best practicable state.
• Rule of philosopher vs rule of law.
• Both: state for good life; ethics and politics linked.

Exam tip

The six-fold classification table is the most asked part; draw it neatly in the exam.

Quick summary

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) was a political thinker of Florence, Italy, during the Renaissance. In his famous book The Prince (written 1513, published 1532), he advised rulers on how to gain, keep and increase power. He separated politics from religion and morality, and is called the "Father of Modern Political Thought" and the "child of the Renaissance".

Key points

• He served as Secretary of the Florentine Republic (from 1498) and as a diplomat. After the Medici returned to power (1512), he lost his post, was jailed, and wrote The Prince, dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici.
• Other works: Discourses on Livy (on republics), The Art of War, History of Florence.
• Background: Italy was divided into small states, weak and corrupt, and invaded by foreign powers. He wanted a strong ruler to unite Italy.
• Human nature: men are selfish, ungrateful, fickle, deceitful and greedy for gain. Men forget the death of their father more quickly than the loss of their property (patrimony).
• Separation of politics from ethics and religion: the ruler should judge actions by results, not by morality. "The end justifies the means" is the popular summary of his idea.
• He did not reject morality for private life, but held that the state's safety comes first – a "double standard" of morality for ruler and citizen.
• Advice to the Prince:
• It is safer to be feared than loved, if one cannot be both, but he must avoid being hated.
• He should be like the fox and the lion – the fox to recognise traps, the lion to frighten wolves.
• He should appear to be religious, honest and merciful, but be ready to act otherwise when needed.
• He should not touch the property and women of his subjects.
• He should rely on a national citizen army, not mercenaries.
• Virtù (ability, energy, skill of the ruler) and Fortuna (luck, chance) – a ruler with virtù can control fortune.
• Religion: useful as a tool to keep people united and obedient.
• Republic: in the Discourses, he preferred a republic for a virtuous people, and a monarchy for a corrupt one.
• Nationalism: he dreamt of a united, independent Italy.
• Contribution: realism in politics; secular state; modern idea of the state and "reason of state"; power politics. Machiavellianism has come to mean cunning, deceitful politics.
• Criticism: immoral, narrow view of human nature, ignores ethics, encourages tyranny.

Important terms

• Realism – studying politics as it is, not as it ought to be.
• Virtù – energy, skill and courage of a ruler.
• Fortuna – chance or luck.
• Machiavellianism – use of cunning and deceit in politics.
• Raison d'état – reason of state; state interest above all.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why is Machiavelli called the child of the Renaissance?

Because, like the Renaissance, he rejected medieval religious authority, took a secular and realistic view of politics, and focused on human beings and the state.

Q2. What is meant by virtù and fortuna?

Virtù is the ruler's energy, ability and courage; fortuna is luck or chance. Machiavelli said a ruler with virtù can master fortune.

Q3. Explain Machiavelli's views on human nature.

• Selfish, ungrateful, fickle.
• Greedy for wealth and power.
• Act only under necessity.
• Need for a strong ruler.
• Basis of his advice to the prince.

Q4. Describe Machiavelli's advice to the Prince.

• Feared rather than loved, but not hated.
• Fox and lion.
• Appear moral; act as needed.
• National army.
• Respect subjects' property and honour.
• Use religion as a tool.

Q5. Discuss Machiavelli's separation of politics from ethics.

• Politics judged by results.
• Double standard of morality.
• State safety supreme.
• Influence of Italian conditions.
• Criticism: immoral; defence: realistic, patriotic.

Exam tip

Quote "fox and lion" and "feared rather than loved" – examiners expect these famous lines from The Prince.

Quick summary

The social contract theory explains the origin of the state as the result of an agreement (contract) among people who earlier lived in a "state of nature" without government. The three main thinkers are Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. They differed about human nature, the state of nature, the terms of the contract and where sovereignty lies.

Key points

• Common elements: state of nature (before society/government) → natural law and natural rights → contract → civil society and government.
• Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), England; book ***Leviathan* (1651)**; background of the English Civil War.
• Human nature: selfish, competitive, fearful; all are roughly equal in their power to harm each other.
• State of nature: a "war of all against all"; life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short".
• Contract: each person gives up all his rights (except self-preservation) to a sovereign, who is not a party to the contract.
• Result: an absolute and indivisible sovereign (Leviathan); no right of revolt (except to save one's life). He supported absolute monarchy.
• John Locke (1632–1704), England; book ***Two Treatises of Government* (1690); justified the Glorious Revolution of 1688**.
• Human nature: rational, social, peaceful.
• State of nature: a state of peace, goodwill and mutual help, governed by natural law; people had natural rights to life, liberty and property. But it had three defects: no clear written law, no impartial judge, no power to enforce decisions.
• Contract: two stages – a social contract forming society, and a trust with the government. People gave up only the right to interpret and enforce natural law.
• Result: limited, constitutional government by consent; sovereignty lies with the people; right to revolt if government breaks trust. Father of liberalism.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), Geneva/France; book ***The Social Contract* (1762), opening line: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.**"
• State of nature: "noble savage", simple, happy and free; private property and civilisation brought inequality and corruption.
• Contract: each person gives himself completely to the community as a whole; obeying the community means obeying oneself.
• Result: popular sovereignty through the General Will (the will that aims at the common good, not the sum of private wills – the "will of all"). Sovereignty is inalienable and indivisible. Inspired the French Revolution.
• Criticism of the theory: unhistorical (no evidence of such a contract), state of nature imaginary, rights cannot exist without society, a contract binds only its makers, the state grows by evolution. Still, it gave the important idea that government rests on the consent of the people.

Important terms

• State of nature – imagined condition before government.
• Natural rights – rights people have by nature.
• Leviathan – Hobbes's absolute sovereign state.
• General Will – Rousseau's collective will for the common good.
• Will of all – sum of private interests.
• Consent – people's agreement as the basis of authority.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. How did Hobbes describe the state of nature?

Hobbes said it was a state of war of all against all, where life was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short, because human beings are selfish and fearful.

Q2. What is the General Will?

In Rousseau's theory, the General Will is the will of the community aimed at the common good. It is always right and is the true sovereign; it differs from the "will of all", which is the total of selfish interests.

Q3. Explain Locke's social contract theory.

• Human nature rational.
• State of nature – peace with natural rights.
• Defects of state of nature.
• Two contracts; trust.
• Limited government, right to revolt.
• Basis of liberal democracy.

Q4. Compare the social contract theories of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.

• Human nature.
• State of nature.
• Terms of contract.
• Location of sovereignty.
• Type of government supported.
• Influence (absolutism, liberalism, democracy).

Q5. Critically evaluate the social contract theory.

• Historical, philosophical, legal criticisms.
• State as evolution, not contract.
• Rights need society.
• Value: consent, popular sovereignty, rights of individual.
• Influence on American and French revolutions.

Exam tip

Use a comparison table with the three thinkers in columns – it is the clearest way to write the most frequently asked long question.

Quick summary

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), an English philosopher and law reformer, is the founder of modern utilitarianism. He held that human beings are governed by pleasure and pain, and that every law and institution should be judged by whether it produces "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". He rejected natural rights and social contract, and used the principle of utility to demand legal, penal and democratic reforms in Britain.

Key points

• Main works: A Fragment on Government (1776), An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (printed 1780, published 1789), Constitutional Code.
• Psychological hedonism: "Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." People naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain.
• Principle of utility: an action is right if it increases happiness and wrong if it decreases it. The goal of the state and law is the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
• Quantitative view: pleasures differ only in quantity, not quality ("quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin is as good as poetry"). Each person counts for one and no one for more than one.
• Felicific (hedonistic) calculus: pleasure and pain can be measured by intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity (nearness), fecundity, purity and extent.
• Four sanctions that make people follow rules: physical (natural), political (legal), moral (popular) and religious.
• State: a group of people organised for promoting happiness; it is based on utility and habit of obedience, not on a contract. He called the social contract a fiction.
• Rights: rights are created by law; natural rights are "nonsense upon stilts".
• Law: law is the command of the sovereign; it should be codified, clear and aimed at utility. He coined the word "codification".
• Punishment: punishment is itself an evil, justified only if it prevents greater evil; it should be just enough to deter. He designed the Panopticon prison.
• Democracy: supported universal male suffrage, secret ballot, annual parliaments, abolition of the House of Lords and monarchy – because rulers' interests must be identified with the people's.
• Mill's revision: J. S. Mill made utilitarianism qualitative ("better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied").
• Criticism: pleasure cannot be measured; ignores quality and moral motives; majority's happiness may harm minorities; human beings are not only pleasure-seekers (Carlyle called it a "pig philosophy").
• Contribution: legal and penal reforms, the Reform Acts, scientific study of law, foundation of welfare-oriented policy.

Important terms

• Utilitarianism – the theory that right action produces the greatest happiness.
• Hedonism – the idea that pleasure is the highest good.
• Felicific calculus – method of measuring pleasure and pain.
• Sanction – a force that makes people obey rules.
• Panopticon – Bentham's design of a prison watched from a central tower.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the principle of utility?

It is Bentham's principle that an action, law or institution is good if it increases the happiness of the greatest number and bad if it causes more pain.

Q2. Name the four sanctions given by Bentham.

Physical (natural), political (legal), moral (popular) and religious sanctions.

Q3. Explain Bentham's theory of utilitarianism.

• Psychological hedonism.
• Principle of utility; greatest happiness of greatest number.
• Felicific calculus and its seven criteria.
• Sanctions.
• Criticism.

Q4. Explain Bentham's views on state, law, rights and punishment.

• State based on utility, not contract.
• Law as command; codification.
• Rights as creation of law; rejection of natural rights.
• Punishment and Panopticon.

Q5. Compare the utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill.

• Quantitative vs qualitative pleasure.
• Self-interest vs higher pleasures and character.
• Role of liberty and individuality.
• Conclusion.

Exam tip

List the seven dimensions of the felicific calculus in order; it is a favourite short question.

Quick summary

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was an English philosopher, economist and a leading liberal thinker. He is famous for his defence of individual liberty in ***On Liberty* (1859), his revision of Bentham's utilitarianism, his support for representative government, and his early support for women's equality in The Subjection of Women (1869)**.

Key points

• Son of James Mill; educated very strictly by his father from early childhood (Greek at 3, according to his Autobiography); influenced by Jeremy Bentham.
• Suffered a mental crisis at 20; found relief in poetry and feelings, which shaped his softer, more humane liberalism.
• Main works: A System of Logic (1843), Principles of Political Economy (1848), ***On Liberty* (1859), Considerations on Representative Government (1861), Utilitarianism (1863), The Subjection of Women (1869)**.
• Member of the British Parliament (1865–68); proposed votes for women.
• Revision of utilitarianism:
• Bentham: "greatest happiness of the greatest number"; pleasures differ only in quantity ("pushpin is as good as poetry").
• Mill: pleasures also differ in quality; higher (intellectual, moral) pleasures are better. "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."
• Liberty (On Liberty):
• Harm principle: "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others."
• Self-regarding actions (affecting only oneself) – full liberty; other-regarding actions (affecting others) – can be regulated.
• Liberty of thought and expression: even if one person holds an opinion against all others, mankind has no right to silence him. Reasons: the silenced opinion may be true; it may contain part of the truth; even a true opinion, if not challenged, becomes "dead dogma".
• Liberty of action and individuality – freedom to choose one's way of life; he feared the "tyranny of the majority" and social conformity.
• Representative government: the ideally best form of government; proposed proportional representation (Thomas Hare's scheme), plural voting for the educated, open (not secret) ballot, votes for women, and education as a condition for voting.
• Women's rights: equality in education, employment, voting and marriage.
• Criticism: distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding actions is unclear; plural voting is elitist; called by some a "reluctant democrat" and "prophet of empty liberty" (Ernest Barker's phrase).

Important terms

• Utilitarianism – right action is the one that gives the greatest happiness to the greatest number.
• Harm principle – liberty may be limited only to prevent harm to others.
• Self-regarding action – action affecting only the doer.
• Tyranny of the majority – suppression of minorities by the majority opinion.
• Plural voting – extra votes for educated persons.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is Mill's harm principle?

Mill said society or the state may interfere with an individual's liberty only to prevent harm to others. A person's own good is not enough reason to force him.

Q2. How did Mill revise Bentham's utilitarianism?

Mill added the idea of quality of pleasures. He said higher intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to bodily pleasures, so happiness is not just a matter of quantity.

Q3. Explain Mill's views on liberty of thought and expression.

• Silenced opinion may be true.
• May contain part of truth.
• True opinion unchallenged becomes dogma.
• Free debate helps progress.
• Limits: incitement to harm.

Q4. Describe Mill's ideas on representative government.

• Best form of government.
• Proportional representation.
• Plural voting for educated.
• Open ballot.
• Women's suffrage.
• Protection of minorities.

Q5. Critically examine Mill's concept of liberty.

• Individual as sovereign over himself.
• Self vs other-regarding actions.
• Individuality and diversity.
• Criticism: vague distinction, negative liberty, elitism.
• Relevance: free speech, minority rights today.

Exam tip

Quote "better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied" when explaining qualitative utilitarianism.

Quick summary

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) was a German idealist philosopher. He explained history as the gradual unfolding of Spirit (Geist) or Reason through a dialectical process. For Hegel the state is the highest stage of social ethics and the realisation of freedom; the individual finds true freedom by obeying the rational laws of the state. His ideas deeply influenced Marx, but critics like Karl Popper accused him of glorifying the state.

Key points

• Main works: Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), Science of Logic (1812–16), Philosophy of Right (1821), Lectures on the Philosophy of History (published after his death).
• Idealism: reality is ultimately mind or spirit; "the real is rational and the rational is real".
• Dialectics: progress happens through conflict of opposites. An idea (often described as thesis) meets its opposite (antithesis), and a higher idea (synthesis) emerges that keeps the truth of both. (The thesis–antithesis–synthesis wording is a later simplification, but it is how exams usually present it.)
• History is the march of Spirit towards freedom: in the Oriental world one was free (the ruler), in the Greek and Roman world some were free, in the Germanic-Christian world all are free.
• Family – based on love and unity (thesis).
• Civil society – based on self-interest, market, contracts; individuals compete (antithesis).
• State – unity of family's love and civil society's individuality; universal and rational (synthesis).
• Ethical life (Sittlichkeit) has three stages:
• State: "the march of God in the world" (a famous phrase often quoted from Philosophy of Right); it is an end in itself, the embodiment of reason and morality, not a mere protector of property.
• Freedom: not doing what one likes, but acting according to rational law; the individual becomes free in and through the state.
• Monarchy: he favoured constitutional monarchy, with the monarch giving final decision, a trained bureaucracy (the "universal class") and an estates assembly.
• War: he thought war preserves the ethical health of nations and prevents decay; there is no authority above sovereign states.
• Influence: Marx used the dialectical method but replaced ideas with material conditions (dialectical materialism) – he said he turned Hegel "right side up". British idealists like T. H. Green and Bosanquet were also influenced.
• Criticism: glorifies the state and war; individual absorbed in the state; seen as a source of authoritarian and fascist ideas (Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1945); difficult and obscure language. Defenders say he wanted a rational constitutional state, not dictatorship.

Important terms

• Geist (Spirit) – universal mind or reason working through history.
• Dialectic – development through contradiction and its resolution.
• Civil society – sphere of economic life and private interests between family and state.
• Sittlichkeit – ethical life embodied in social institutions.
• Idealism – philosophy that ideas or mind are the basic reality.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is Hegel's dialectical method?

It is the idea that development takes place through the conflict of opposite ideas, from which a higher idea emerges that combines the truth of both; the process continues until the Absolute is reached.

Q2. What is civil society according to Hegel?

Civil society is the stage between family and state in which individuals pursue their private interests through the market, contracts and associations.

Q3. Explain Hegel's dialectical method and philosophy of history.

• Idealism and Geist.
• Dialectic: thesis, antithesis, synthesis.
• History as progress of freedom (one, some, all).
• Influence on Marx.

Q4. Explain Hegel's theory of the state.

• Family, civil society and state.
• State as embodiment of reason and morality; "march of God".
• Freedom through the state; constitutional monarchy.
• Criticism.

Q5. Evaluate Hegel's contribution to political thought.

• Dialectics, history, state, freedom.
• Influence on Marx and idealists.
• Charges of authoritarianism; balanced conclusion.

Exam tip

Draw the three-step chart family → civil society → state with thesis/antithesis/synthesis labels in Q4.

Quick summary

Thomas Hill Green (1836–1882), an Oxford philosopher, was the leading British idealist and a founder of modern (positive) liberalism. He argued that "will, not force, is the basis of the state", that true liberty is a positive power to do things worth doing, and that the state should "hinder the hindrances" to the good life – for example, by providing education and controlling harmful trades. He built a bridge from classical laissez-faire liberalism to the welfare state.

Key points

• Main work: Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation (delivered 1879–80, published 1886 after his death); also Prolegomena to Ethics (1883).
• Influenced by Kant and Hegel, but more individualist and liberal than Hegel.
• Human nature: man is a moral, rational being who seeks self-realisation (developing his best self). Self-realisation is possible only in society, through common good.
• Will, not force, is the basis of the state: people obey the state because it stands for the common good they recognise, not mainly because of fear of punishment. He criticised Austin's view that sovereignty rests on force alone.
• Rights: a right is a power claimed by the individual and recognised by society as necessary for the common good. Rights are not natural in the sense of existing before society; they come from social recognition. There can be no right against society as a whole.
• Positive liberty: "a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying, and that, too, something that we do or enjoy in common with others." Freedom is not just the absence of restraint.
• Function of the state: the state cannot make people moral directly (morality must be voluntary), but it can remove obstacles to moral life – ignorance, drunkenness, poverty, unhealthy conditions. Hence he supported compulsory education, temperance (liquor) laws, factory and land laws.
• Property: property is necessary for self-realisation, so everyone should have some; unlimited accumulation that leaves others without means is not justified. He criticised large landlordism.
• Punishment: should be mainly preventive and reformative; it protects rights.
• Resistance: citizens may resist the state when its laws clearly go against the common good, but only when the majority would support it and it will not cause anarchy.
• War: never an absolute right; it violates the right to life; a perfect state would not need war.
• Criticism: vague idea of "common good"; mix of idealism and liberalism (Barker called him "a liberal idealist"); state's role not clearly limited. Contribution: foundation of social or welfare liberalism (Hobhouse, Laski, and the British welfare state).

Important terms

• Idealism – the view that ideas and moral consciousness shape reality and society.
• Self-realisation – full development of one's moral capacities.
• Common good – the shared good of all members of society.
• Positive liberty – freedom as real ability to act and develop.
• Hinder hindrances – the state removing obstacles to good life.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What did Green mean by "will, not force, is the basis of the state"?

He meant that the state rests on citizens' willing acceptance of laws that serve the common good, not mainly on coercion. Force is used only against those who break the law.

Q2. Give Green's definition of liberty.

Liberty is "a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying", and that in common with others.

Q3. Explain Green's theory of rights.

• Rights based on moral nature and common good.
• Social recognition as essential.
• No rights against society; right to resist in limited cases.
• Comparison with natural rights theory.

Q4. Explain Green's views on the functions of the state.

• State cannot enforce morality directly.
• "Hinder hindrances": education, temperance, property and land laws.
• Positive liberty; welfare role.
• Criticism.

Q5. Evaluate Green's contribution to liberalism.

• From negative to positive liberalism.
• Will as basis of state, rights, property.
• Influence on welfare state; limitations.

Exam tip

Quote Green's definition of liberty word for word; it is often asked in 2-mark questions.

Quick summary

Harold Joseph Laski (1893–1950) was a British political scientist at the London School of Economics and a leader of the Labour Party. His thought moved through three stages: pluralism (attacking the idea of absolute state sovereignty), Fabian socialism (A Grammar of Politics, 1925) and a Marxist phase in the 1930s. He is famous for his definitions of rights and liberty, and he taught many Indian students who later shaped public life in India.

Key points

• Main works: Studies in the Problem of Sovereignty (1917), Authority in the Modern State (1919), A Grammar of Politics (1925), Liberty in the Modern State (1930), The State in Theory and Practice (1935), Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time (1943).
• Taught at Harvard and Yale, then at the LSE (from 1920); Chairman of the Labour Party (1945–46).
• Pluralism: society has many associations – family, church, trade unions, professional bodies – each with its own purpose. The state is only one association among them, though it co-ordinates the others. He attacked the monistic theory of sovereignty (Austin): "it would be of lasting benefit to political science if the whole concept of sovereignty were surrendered."
• State: the state's authority depends on how well it serves the needs of its citizens; obedience must be given on moral grounds, not blindly.
• Rights: "Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself at his best." Rights are prior to the state in the sense that the state is judged by the rights it maintains. Important rights: to work, to adequate wages, to reasonable hours of work, to education, to vote, free speech and association.
• Liberty: "the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves." Types: private, political and economic liberty. "Liberty without equality is a name of noble sound and squalid result."
• Equality: absence of special privileges and adequate opportunities for all; economic equality is necessary for political democracy.
• Property: unequal property makes liberty meaningless; key industries should be socially controlled.
• Marxist phase: after the Great Depression he argued that the capitalist state protects the owning class and that democracy and capitalism are in conflict; but he still preferred peaceful, democratic change ("revolution by consent").
• Influence in India: students such as K. R. Narayanan and V. K. Krishna Menon learned from him; his ideas of rights and welfare influenced Indian democratic socialism.
• Criticism: shifting views and inconsistencies; pluralism weakens state unity; vague about how to reconcile liberty and equality.

Important terms

• Pluralism – the view that power and loyalty are shared among many associations, not only the state.
• Monism – the view that sovereignty is single, absolute and indivisible.
• Fabianism – gradual democratic socialism.
• Economic liberty – security from want and the opportunity to earn a reasonable living.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Give Laski's definition of rights.

"Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself at his best."

Q2. What is pluralism?

Pluralism is the theory that society consists of many associations with their own authority, and the state is only one of them, so sovereignty is not absolute or indivisible.

Q3. Explain Laski's pluralist criticism of state sovereignty.

• Monistic theory (Austin).
• Associations and divided loyalty.
• State as co-ordinator, not absolute master.
• Criticism of pluralism.

Q4. Explain Laski's views on liberty and equality.

• Definition and types of liberty.
• Equality: no privilege, adequate opportunity, economic equality.
• Relation between liberty and equality.

Q5. Evaluate Laski as a political thinker.

• Three phases: pluralist, Fabian, Marxist.
• Rights, liberty, property, state.
• Influence on India and the welfare state.
• Limitations.

Exam tip

In any answer on rights or liberty in BA-1 papers too, Laski's definitions are the most quoted; learn both exactly.

Quick summary

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist and revolutionary, and the founder of scientific socialism (Marxism). With Friedrich Engels, he wrote ***The Communist Manifesto* (1848), and his major work is *Das Kapital*** (Volume I, 1867). Marx explained history through class struggle and economic forces, criticised capitalism, and predicted a proletarian revolution leading to a classless, stateless communist society.

Key points

• Born at Trier, Germany; studied at Bonn and Berlin; influenced by Hegel's dialectics, Feuerbach's materialism, British classical economics (Adam Smith, Ricardo) and French socialism.
• Lived most of his later life in London, where he died in 1883.
• Dialectical materialism: Marx took Hegel's dialectic (thesis → antithesis → synthesis) but applied it to matter instead of ideas. He said he found Hegel "standing on his head" and set him on his feet. Change happens through the conflict of opposites.
• Historical materialism (economic interpretation of history): the economic base (forces and relations of production) shapes the superstructure (law, politics, religion, culture). "It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but their social being that determines their consciousness."
• Stages of history: primitive communism → slavery → feudalism → capitalism → socialism → communism.
• Class struggle: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles" (Communist Manifesto). In capitalism, the struggle is between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
• Theory of surplus value: labour creates value. The worker is paid less than the value he produces; the difference (surplus value) is taken by the capitalist as profit. This is exploitation.
• Alienation: under capitalism, the worker is alienated from the product, the process of work, his fellow humans and his own human nature.
• Theory of the state: the state is an instrument of class domination; "the executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie."
• Revolution: capitalism will create crises and a growing, impoverished proletariat, which will overthrow it by revolution.
• Dictatorship of the proletariat: transitional stage after the revolution (socialism) – "from each according to his ability, to each according to his work".
• Communism: classless, stateless society; the state will "wither away" (Engels' phrase); "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".
• Closing call of the Manifesto: "Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains."
• Criticism: economic determinism ignores other factors; predicted revolutions did not happen in advanced capitalist countries; the middle class grew; communist states became authoritarian, and the state did not wither away.
• Influence: Russian Revolution (1917), China (1949), labour movements, welfare policies; social sciences.

Important terms

• Bourgeoisie – capitalist class owning means of production.
• Proletariat – working class selling labour.
• Surplus value – value produced by labour above wages.
• Base and superstructure – economy and the institutions built on it.
• Alienation – estrangement of workers under capitalism.
• Withering away of the state – disappearance of the state under communism.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is surplus value?

Surplus value is the difference between the value a worker produces and the wages he receives. Marx said the capitalist keeps it as profit, which is the root of exploitation.

Q2. What does Marx mean by the withering away of the state?

In a communist society there will be no classes, so there will be no need for a state as an instrument of class rule. The state will gradually disappear.

Q3. Explain dialectical materialism.

• Hegel's dialectic.
• Marx's materialist reversal.
• Thesis, antithesis, synthesis.
• Change through conflict of opposites.
• Quantity into quality; negation of negation.
• Basis of historical materialism.

Q4. Explain Marx's theory of class struggle.

• Classes based on ownership.
• Struggle in every stage of history.
• Bourgeoisie vs proletariat.
• Revolution inevitable.
• Classless society as final result.
• Criticism.

Q5. Discuss Marx's theory of the state and revolution.

• State as class instrument.
• Proletarian revolution.
• Dictatorship of proletariat.
• Socialism and communism.
• Withering away of state.
• Evaluation.

Exam tip

Learn the three famous lines (class struggle, committee of the bourgeoisie, workers of the world unite) and use them in introductions and conclusions.

Quick summary

Kautilya (also called Chanakya or Vishnugupta, 4th century BCE) was the teacher and chief adviser of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire. His Arthashastra is the most important ancient Indian text on statecraft, economics, law, administration, diplomacy and war. He gave the Saptanga theory of the state, the Mandala theory of inter-state relations and the six-fold foreign policy. Because of his realism he is often compared with Machiavelli, but he placed the welfare of the people at the centre of kingship.

Key points

• The Arthashastra text was rediscovered and published by R. Shamasastry (manuscript found in 1905; published 1909, English translation 1915). It has 15 books (adhikaranas) and about 150 chapters. Some scholars think the present text was compiled over a period of time.
• Artha means wealth and also the territory inhabited by people; Arthashastra is the science of acquiring and protecting territory.
• Swami – the king (most important).
• Amatya – ministers and officials.
• Janapada – territory and people.
• Durga – fortified capital.
• Kosha – treasury.
• Danda – army and the power of punishment.
• Mitra – allies.
• Saptanga theory (seven elements of the state):

He compared the state to an organism; each limb is necessary.

• Kingship: the king should be disciplined, educated, energetic and devoted to people's welfare. "In the happiness of his subjects lies the king's happiness; in their welfare his welfare."
• Administration: a council of ministers (mantriparishad), many departments under superintendents (adhyakshas), revenue system, detailed rules on trade, weights and measures, labour and prices.
• Danda (punishment): proper punishment maintains order and protects the weak from the strong (to avoid matsya nyaya – "law of the fish", where big fish eat small ones).
• Espionage: a wide network of spies to watch officials, enemies and public opinion.
• Mandala theory: a circle of states around the vijigishu (the king seeking conquest). The immediate neighbour is a natural enemy (ari), the enemy's neighbour is a natural friend (mitra); also the madhyama (middle king) and udasina (neutral king).
• Six-fold policy (shadgunya): sandhi (peace treaty), vigraha (war), asana (neutrality / waiting), yana (marching / preparing for attack), samshraya (seeking shelter or alliance), dvaidhibhava (double policy – peace with one, war with another).
• Four upayas (means): sama (conciliation), dana (gifts), bheda (division), danda (force).
• Kautilya and Machiavelli: both realists, separate politics from conventional morality and give importance to power and statecraft; but Kautilya places the king under dharma and welfare duties, and gives a full administrative system.
• Relevance: realism in foreign policy, welfare state, good governance, intelligence system. Criticism: support for deceit and spies, too much power to the king.

Important terms

• Saptanga – seven limbs of the state.
• Vijigishu – the king who aspires to conquer.
• Mandala – circle of states.
• Shadgunya – six-fold foreign policy.
• Matsya nyaya – anarchy where the strong devour the weak.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What are the seven elements of the state according to Kautilya?

Swami (king), Amatya (ministers), Janapada (territory and people), Durga (fort), Kosha (treasury), Danda (army/punishment) and Mitra (ally).

Q2. What is the Mandala theory?

It is Kautilya's theory of inter-state relations in which states are arranged in circles around the ambitious king: a neighbour is a natural enemy and the neighbour's neighbour is a natural friend.

Q3. Explain Kautilya's Saptanga theory of the state.

• Seven elements with explanation.
• Organic view; relative importance of the king.
• Comparison with modern elements of the state.

Q4. Explain Kautilya's views on foreign policy.

• Mandala theory.
• Six-fold policy.
• Four upayas.
• Realism and relevance today.

Q5. Compare Kautilya with Machiavelli.

• Background and works (Arthashastra, The Prince).
• Similarities: realism, power, statecraft, espionage.
• Differences: dharma and welfare, administration, scope.
• Conclusion.

Exam tip

Write the Sanskrit names of the six policies with their English meanings in a small table; it scores easily.

Quick summary

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890) of Pune was a great social revolutionary and thinker of Maharashtra. He fought against caste inequality, Brahmanical domination and the exploitation of peasants, and worked for the education of women and the lower castes with his wife Savitribai Phule. He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (1873). His ideas of equality, rationalism and human rights influenced Shahu Maharaj and Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, who called him one of his three gurus.

Key points

• Born in 1827 in a Mali family in Pune; studied at the Scottish Mission school. An insult at a Brahmin friend's wedding (1848) made him aware of caste discrimination.
• Education: started the first school for girls run by Indians at Bhide Wada, Pune, in 1848, with Savitribai as teacher; later schools for untouchable children. He believed "lack of education" (avidya) was the root of all misery – "Without knowledge, wisdom was lost; without wisdom, morality was lost..." (from Shetkaryacha Asud).
• In his evidence before the Hunter (Education) Commission (1882) he demanded free and compulsory primary education for the masses.
• Women: supported widow remarriage; opposed child marriage; started a home to prevent infanticide (Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha, 1863); opened his well to untouchables.
• Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Truth-Seekers) founded on 24 September 1873: equality of all human beings, one God (Nirmik), no need of priests as middlemen, rational religion, simple marriages without priests.
• Main writings: Tritiya Ratna (play, 1855), Gulamgiri (Slavery, 1873, dedicated to the people of the USA who fought slavery), Shetkaryacha Asud (The Cultivator's Whipcord, 1883), Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak (published 1891).
• Critique of caste: caste is a man-made system of exploitation, not divine; he reinterpreted myths (e.g. King Bali as a just ruler) to show the history of the oppressed. He used the terms Shudra–Atishudra for the exploited majority.
• Peasants: exposed exploitation by moneylenders, priests and British officials; demanded irrigation, agricultural education, better tools and lower taxes.
• Political ideas: equality and liberty for all, human rights, nationalism based on unity of all castes ("a nation cannot be formed while caste divisions remain"), democratic and secular outlook, welfare role of government.
• Given the title "Mahatma" at a public meeting in Mumbai in 1888.
• Influence: non-Brahmin movement, Shahu Maharaj's reservations (1902), Ambedkar's movement; Maharashtra's tradition of social justice.
• Criticism: some saw his attack on Brahmins as one-sided; his views on British rule were mixed (he saw it as a chance for the oppressed).

Important terms

• Satyashodhak Samaj – society for truth-seeking and social equality.
• Gulamgiri – slavery; his book on caste slavery.
• Shudra–Atishudra – the lower castes and untouchables.
• Avidya – ignorance, the root cause of exploitation.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. When and why was the Satyashodhak Samaj founded?

It was founded by Phule on 24 September 1873 to free the lower castes from religious and social slavery, oppose priestly domination and spread equality and rational religion.

Q2. Name two books of Mahatma Phule.

Gulamgiri (1873) and Shetkaryacha Asud (1883).

Q3. Explain Mahatma Phule's views on education.

• Education as the key to liberation.
• Girls' and untouchables' schools; Savitribai.
• Hunter Commission demands.
• Relevance today.

Q4. Explain Phule's social and political thought.

• Critique of caste and Brahmanical domination.
• Satyashodhak Samaj and its principles.
• Women's rights; peasants' problems.
• Equality, liberty, nationalism.

Q5. Evaluate Phule's contribution to social justice in Maharashtra.

• Reform work and writings.
• Influence on Shahu Maharaj and Ambedkar.
• Legacy; criticism.

Exam tip

Quote the famous lines on the effects of lack of education from Shetkaryacha Asud in Marathi if you write in Marathi; examiners love it.

Quick summary

Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) was the leader of India's freedom struggle and a moral and political thinker. His ideas rest on truth (satya) and non-violence (ahimsa). He developed satyagraha as a method of struggle, and imagined a decentralised society of self-reliant villages (Gram Swaraj), economic equality through trusteeship, and Sarvodaya – the welfare of all.

Key points

• Born 2 October 1869 at Porbandar, Gujarat. Studied law in London; worked in South Africa (1893–1914), where he first used satyagraha.
• Influences: the Bhagavad Gita, Jainism, the Sermon on the Mount, Leo Tolstoy (The Kingdom of God Is Within You), John Ruskin (Unto This Last), Henry David Thoreau (Civil Disobedience), and Gopal Krishna Gokhale (political guru).
• Main writings: ***Hind Swaraj* (1909), *The Story of My Experiments with Truth*** (autobiography), journals Young India, Navajivan, Harijan.
• Truth: "Truth is God" (earlier he said God is Truth). Life is a search for truth.
• Non-violence (ahimsa): not only avoiding harm, but active love even for the opponent; non-violence of the brave, not of the coward.
• Satyagraha ("holding firmly to truth"): resisting injustice by suffering oneself, not by harming others. Techniques: non-cooperation, civil disobedience, fasting, hartal, picketing, hijrat (migration). A satyagrahi must be truthful, disciplined and without hatred.
• Ends and means: means must be pure; "means are to ends as a seed is to a tree".
• Swaraj: not just political freedom, but self-rule over oneself; freedom of every individual and village.
• State: Gandhi was a "philosophical anarchist". He saw the state as soulless violence in concentrated form; the best government governs least. Ideal: an "enlightened anarchy" of self-governing villages.
• Gram Swaraj / decentralisation: each village as a self-sufficient republic, managed by a panchayat. Influenced Article 40 and Panchayati Raj.
• Sarvodaya: welfare of all, inspired by Ruskin's Unto This Last; later carried on by Vinoba Bhave (Bhoodan).
• Trusteeship: the rich should hold their extra wealth as trustees for society.
• Economic ideas: swadeshi, khadi, charkha, cottage industries, bread labour, against large-scale machinery that displaces workers.
• Social ideas: removal of untouchability (he called them "Harijans"), women's equality, basic education (Nai Talim, Wardha scheme 1937), Hindu-Muslim unity, prohibition.
• Sevagram Ashram at Wardha (from 1936) was his base in central India.
• Criticism: impractical in a modern industrial world; religious tone; trusteeship idealistic; Dr. Ambedkar disagreed with his approach to caste.
• Relevance: inspired Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela; environmental and peace movements.

Important terms

• Satyagraha – non-violent resistance based on truth.
• Sarvodaya – upliftment of all.
• Trusteeship – wealth held for social good.
• Gram Swaraj – village self-rule.
• Swadeshi – reliance on one's own country's products.
• Nai Talim – basic education linked to productive work.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is satyagraha?

Satyagraha means holding firmly to truth. It is Gandhi's method of fighting injustice through non-violent resistance and self-suffering, aimed at changing the opponent's heart.

Q2. What is Gandhi's concept of trusteeship?

Gandhi said the rich should treat their surplus wealth as a trust and use it for the welfare of society, keeping only what they need.

Q3. Explain Gandhi's views on non-violence.

• Meaning: active love.
• Non-violence of the brave.
• Means and ends.
• Use in political struggle.
• Basis of satyagraha.
• Relevance today.

Q4. Discuss Gandhi's views on the state.

• State as concentrated violence.
• Philosophical anarchism.
• Enlightened anarchy.
• Decentralisation and Gram Swaraj.
• Minimum state as practical step.

Q5. Explain Gandhi's concept of Sarvodaya and Gram Swaraj.

• Influence of Ruskin.
• Welfare of all, including the last person.
• Self-sufficient villages.
• Panchayats; cottage industries.
• Vinoba's Bhoodan.
• Influence on Panchayati Raj.

Exam tip

Name Gandhi's influences (Tolstoy, Ruskin, Thoreau, Gita) at the start – examiners treat it as the mark of a complete answer.

Quick summary

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956) was a political thinker, jurist, economist and the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. His political thought centres on social democracy, the annihilation of caste, liberty, equality and fraternity, state socialism, and constitutional methods. He saw political democracy as incomplete without social and economic democracy.

Key points

• Influences: Buddha, Kabir and Mahatma Phule (his three gurus), John Dewey (his teacher at Columbia), and the ideals of the French Revolution.
• Major writings: ***Annihilation of Caste* (1936)**, Who Were the Shudras? (1946), The Untouchables (1948), States and Minorities (1947), Thoughts on Linguistic States (1955), The Buddha and His Dhamma (published 1957).
• On caste: caste is not merely a division of labour but a division of labourers; it is a graded inequality and blocks national unity and morality. It must be annihilated, not reformed, through inter-caste marriage and rejecting scriptures that support it.
• Democracy: "a form and method of government whereby revolutionary changes in the economic and social life of the people are brought about without bloodshed."
• Social democracy: a way of life that recognises liberty, equality and fraternity as principles of life. He said he took these from the Buddha's teachings, not from the French Revolution.
• Conditions for democracy's success: no glaring inequalities, strong opposition, equality before law and administration, constitutional morality, protection of minorities, active public conscience.
• Speech of 25 November 1949: warned that India was entering "a life of contradictions" – equality in politics and inequality in social and economic life. He advised giving up "the grammar of anarchy" (civil disobedience, satyagraha) after independence and warned against hero-worship (bhakti) in politics.
• State socialism (States and Minorities): state ownership of key industries and agriculture, insurance by the state, collective farming – to be written into the constitution.
• Rights and safeguards: Fundamental Rights, Article 32 ("heart and soul"), reservations, protection of minorities.
• Women's rights: the Hindu Code Bill; equality in property, marriage and divorce.
• Linguistic states: supported them but favoured "one state, one language" and suggested dividing large states; in Thoughts on Linguistic States he proposed dividing Maharashtra into smaller states.
• Religion: religion must be based on reason, equality and morality. He chose Buddhism (Navayana) at Nagpur in 1956.
• Economic thought: The Problem of the Rupee (1923), Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India; his evidence before the Hilton Young Commission (1925) is often linked with the later founding of the Reserve Bank of India; supported labour laws (8-hour workday as Labour Member).
• Criticism: some say his views on Hinduism were too harsh; Gandhians disagreed on methods. But his ideas remain central to social justice in India.

Important terms

• Social democracy – democracy as a way of life based on liberty, equality and fraternity.
• Constitutional morality – respect for constitutional methods and norms.
• Graded inequality – hierarchy in which each caste is above some and below others.
• State socialism – state ownership of key sectors for equality.
• Navayana – Ambedkar's interpretation of Buddhism.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What did Ambedkar mean by social democracy?

Social democracy is a way of life that accepts liberty, equality and fraternity as principles of life. Ambedkar said political democracy cannot last unless it rests on social democracy.

Q2. Why did Ambedkar call caste a "division of labourers"?

Because caste does not divide work by ability or choice but fixes people by birth into graded groups, making some superior and others inferior.

Q3. Explain Ambedkar's views on democracy.

• Definition.
• Political vs social and economic democracy.
• Conditions for success.
• Constitutional morality.
• Warning against hero-worship.
• Fraternity as base.

Q4. Discuss Ambedkar's views on caste and its annihilation.

• Origin and nature of caste.
• Graded inequality; division of labourers.
• Harm to society and nation.
• Remedies: inter-caste marriage, rejecting supporting scriptures, education.
• Political safeguards.

Q5. Describe Ambedkar's ideas on state socialism and economic justice.

• States and Minorities (1947).
• State ownership of key industries and land.
• Collective farming.
• Labour welfare.
• Economic democracy as part of social justice.

Exam tip

Quote his 25 November 1949 speech ("life of contradictions") – it lifts any answer on Ambedkar's democratic thought.

Quick summary

Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia (1910–1967) was a freedom fighter, socialist leader and original thinker. He developed an Indian form of democratic socialism that combined ideas of Marx and Gandhi but went beyond both. He is known for the Sapta Kranti (seven revolutions), the Chaukhamba Raj (four-pillar state), a strong attack on caste and gender inequality, support for Indian languages over English, and the politics of anti-Congressism. RTMNU's Modern Indian Political Thought paper studies his views on caste, language and democratic socialism.

Key points

• Born in 1910 at Akbarpur (Uttar Pradesh); PhD from Berlin (1932) on the salt tax and Gandhi's Satyagraha.
• A founder member of the Congress Socialist Party (1934); active underground in the Quit India Movement (1942) (including the secret Congress Radio with Usha Mehta); started the civil disobedience for Goa's liberation (1946).
• After independence: Socialist Party, Praja Socialist Party, then Samyukta Socialist Party; elected to Lok Sabha in 1963 (Farrukhabad by-election); famous "three annas vs fifteen annas" debate on poverty.
• Main works: Marx, Gandhi and Socialism (1963), Wheel of History, The Caste System, Fragments of a World Mind.
• Critique of capitalism and communism: both are based on large-scale technology and centralisation; neither suits India. He called for "small-unit technology" and decentralisation.
• Equality between men and women.
• Against inequality based on skin colour.
• Against caste inequality and for special opportunities to backward groups.
• Against foreign domination and for a world government.
• Economic equality and planned production.
• Protection of private life against unjust interference.
• Against weapons and for civil disobedience (Satyagraha) as a method.
• Sapta Kranti (seven revolutions) – simultaneous struggles for:
• Caste: caste is the main obstacle to Indian progress; "caste restricts opportunity, restricted opportunity constricts ability." He demanded 60% special opportunity for backward groups – women of all castes, Shudras, Dalits, Adivasis and backward minorities ("pichhda pawe sau mein saath"). He also supported inter-caste marriages and common dining.
• Language: opposed the dominance of English in administration, courts and higher education ("Angrezi hatao"), because it keeps power with a small elite; supported Hindi and all Indian languages.
• Democratic socialism: equality with liberty; socialism through democratic means and Satyagraha; ceiling on income and expenditure; land reform; decentralised economy.
• Chaukhamba Raj (four-pillar state): power divided among four levels – village, district, state (province) and centre – with real powers and finance at each level, to make democracy participatory.
• Anti-Congressism: believed one-party dominance harmed democracy; his strategy helped opposition coalitions (Samyukta Vidhayak Dal) win in several states in 1967.
• Criticism: language policy seen as anti-South India by critics; ideas not always practical; caste-based mobilisation later encouraged caste politics.

Important terms

• Sapta Kranti – seven simultaneous revolutions.
• Chaukhamba Raj – four-pillar decentralised state.
• Small-unit technology – small machines suited to labour-rich India.
• Anti-Congressism – uniting opposition parties against Congress dominance.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is Chaukhamba Raj?

It is Lohia's idea of a four-pillar state in which power and resources are divided among the village, district, state and centre so that people participate in government at every level.

Q2. What did Lohia mean by small-unit technology?

He meant using small, cheap machines suited to India's large labour force and small capital, instead of heavy, centralised industry.

Q3. Explain Lohia's thoughts on caste.

• Caste as the main obstacle.
• Special opportunity (60%) for backward groups and women.
• Inter-caste marriage and social unity.
• Impact on Indian politics.

Q4. Explain Lohia's concept of Sapta Kranti and democratic socialism.

• Seven revolutions listed and explained.
• Critique of capitalism and communism.
• Decentralisation, small machines, Satyagraha.

Q5. Evaluate Lohia's contribution to Indian political thought.

• Caste, language, gender, decentralisation.
• Anti-Congressism and 1967.
• Relevance and criticism.

Exam tip

For RTMNU, answer under three headings exactly as in the syllabus: thoughts on caste, thoughts on language, democratic socialism.

Quick summary

International Relations (IR) is the study of relations among states and other actors (international organisations, multinational companies, NGOs) in the world. Key ideas are national power, national interest, balance of power and collective security, and the main theories are realism and liberalism. The United Nations (UN), set up in 1945, is the main international organisation for peace and cooperation.

Key points

• IR became a separate subject after the First World War; the first chair of IR was set up at Aberystwyth (Wales) in 1919.
• Realism: states seek power; international politics is a struggle for power. Hans J. Morgenthau (Politics Among Nations, 1948) gave six principles of political realism; national interest defined in terms of power.
• Liberalism (idealism): cooperation, international law, institutions and trade can bring peace (Woodrow Wilson's ideas).
• National power elements: geography, natural resources, population, economy, military strength, technology, leadership, national morale, diplomacy.
• Balance of power: no single state should become so strong as to dominate others.
• Collective security: an attack on one is treated as an attack on all.
• The League of Nations (1920) failed to prevent the Second World War.
• United Nations: Atlantic Charter (1941), Declaration by United Nations (1942), Dumbarton Oaks (1944), Yalta (1945). The UN Charter was signed at the San Francisco Conference on 26 June 1945; the UN came into existence on 24 October 1945 (UN Day). Headquarters: New York. 51 original members (India was one); now 193 members.
• Purposes: maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations, international cooperation in economic, social and humanitarian problems, promote human rights.
• Six principal organs:

1. General Assembly – all members, one vote each.
2. Security Council – 15 members: 5 permanent (USA, UK, France, Russia, China) with veto power, and 10 non-permanent elected for 2 years.
3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – 54 members.
4. Trusteeship Council – suspended operations in 1994.
5. International Court of Justice – at The Hague, 15 judges.
6. Secretariat – headed by the Secretary-General, appointed by the General Assembly on the Security Council's recommendation.

• Specialised agencies: UNESCO, WHO, ILO, FAO, IMF, World Bank; programmes like UNICEF, UNDP.
• Achievements: peacekeeping missions, decolonisation, human rights (UDHR 1948), health (smallpox eradication with WHO), development aid.
• Limitations: veto misuse, dominance of big powers, lack of own army, financial problems.
• Reform demands: expansion of the Security Council; India, Germany, Japan and Brazil (G4) seek permanent seats.

Important terms

• National interest – goals a state pursues for its survival and benefit.
• Veto – power of a permanent member to block a Security Council decision.
• Collective security – joint action against an aggressor.
• Peacekeeping – UN forces maintaining peace in conflict zones.
• Balance of power – equilibrium among states.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the veto power?

Veto power is the right of each of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council to block any substantive resolution by voting against it.

Q2. Name the six principal organs of the UN.

General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and Secretariat.

Q3. Explain the elements of national power.

• Geography.
• Natural resources.
• Population.
• Economic and industrial strength.
• Military preparedness.
• Leadership, morale, diplomacy.

Q4. Describe the composition and functions of the Security Council.

• 15 members; P5 and veto.
• Non-permanent members.
• Maintains peace and security.
• Sanctions and military action.
• Recommends new members and Secretary-General.
• Criticism and reform demands.

Q5. Evaluate the role of the United Nations in world peace.

• Peacekeeping successes.
• Decolonisation and human rights.
• Development and health.
• Failures: veto deadlock, big-power dominance.
• Need for reform.

Exam tip

Remember 24 October 1945, the 15-member Security Council and the P5 list – these come up as short questions every year.

Quick summary

Balance of power and collective security are two different methods of keeping peace among states. Balance of power tries to prevent any one state from becoming so strong that it can dominate others, by shifting alliances and arms. Collective security means that all states together treat an attack on one as an attack on all and act jointly against the aggressor. The League of Nations and the United Nations (Chapter VII of the Charter) are based on collective security.

Key points

Balance of power

• Meaning: an equilibrium of power among states so that no single state or group can dominate. Hans Morgenthau treated it as a natural result of states' struggle for power; Sidney Fay: "such a just equilibrium in power among the members of the family of nations as will prevent any one of them from becoming sufficiently strong to enforce its will upon the others."
• History: practised by Greek city-states and ancient India (Kautilya's mandala); classic period in Europe from the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and Treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Concert of Europe after the Congress of Vienna (1815); Britain acted as the "holder of the balance".
• Assumptions: states seek power; a state that becomes too strong is a threat; states act rationally to restore equilibrium.
• Types: simple (two powers or blocs, e.g. Cold War bipolarity) and complex (many powers); general and local balance.
• Techniques: alliances and counter-alliances, armaments and disarmament, compensation (territorial gains shared), divide and rule, intervention and non-intervention, buffer states, and a holder of the balance (balancer).
• Merits: prevents domination, preserves independence of small states, discourages war.
• Criticism: uncertain and hard to measure power; encourages arms race and wars; small states used as pawns; less relevant after nuclear weapons, ideological blocs and the UN. Today it appears as a "balance of terror" (nuclear deterrence) and in regional balances (e.g. Indo-Pacific).

Collective security

• Meaning: an arrangement in which all states agree that an attack on one is an attack on all, and they will act together against any aggressor. Peace is "indivisible".
• Principles: commitment of all states, identification of aggressor, collective action (sanctions or military), deterrence, rule of law over power.
• League of Nations: Article 16 of the Covenant provided sanctions; it failed (Japan in Manchuria 1931, Italy in Ethiopia 1935).
• United Nations: Chapter VII (Arts. 39–51) – the Security Council decides on threats to peace and can impose economic sanctions (Art. 41) or military action (Art. 42). Art. 51 keeps the right of self-defence.
• Cases: Korea (1950) and the Uniting for Peace resolution (1950); Gulf War (1991) against Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.
• Limitations: veto power of P5 blocks action; no permanent UN army; states put national interest first; difficulty of defining aggression.
• Collective security vs collective defence: collective security is universal and against any aggressor; collective defence (e.g. NATO, Article 5) is an alliance against a common outside threat.
• Balance of power vs collective security: alliances against a specific rival vs universal commitment; power vs law; flexible shifting vs fixed duty.

Important terms

• Equilibrium – balanced distribution of power.
• Balancer – a state that shifts its weight to restore balance.
• Buffer state – a small state between two big rivals.
• Aggressor – a state that attacks another.
• Deterrence – preventing attack by threat of strong response.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by balance of power?

It is a situation or policy in which power is so distributed among states that no single state or group can dominate the others.

Q2. What is collective security?

It is a system in which all states agree to treat aggression against one as aggression against all and to take joint action against the aggressor.

Q3. Explain the meaning, types and techniques of balance of power.

• Definitions (Morgenthau, Fay).
• Assumptions; simple/complex types.
• Techniques with examples.
• Relevance today.

Q4. Explain the meaning and principles of collective security. Why has it often failed?

• Meaning and principles.
• League and UN provisions.
• Korea, Gulf War.
• Limitations.

Q5. Distinguish between balance of power and collective security.

• Basis, aim, method, membership, nature of commitment.
• Examples.
• Conclusion: both still used together.

Exam tip

RTMNU asks "meaning, types and techniques" of balance of power – use exactly those three headings.

Quick summary

India's foreign policy aims to protect national interest, peace and development. Its foundations were laid by Jawaharlal Nehru: non-alignment, Panchsheel, anti-colonialism, anti-racism, support for the UN and peaceful settlement of disputes. Article 51 of the Constitution guides it. Since the 1990s India has added economic diplomacy, the Look East / Act East policy and closer ties with major powers.

Key points

• Determinants: geography, history and the freedom struggle, national interest, economic needs, political traditions (Buddha, Gandhi), leadership, international environment.
• Article 51 (DPSP): promote international peace and security, just and honourable relations between nations, respect for international law, settlement of disputes by arbitration.
• Non-alignment: not joining either military bloc (US-led or Soviet-led) during the Cold War, while keeping freedom to judge each issue on merit. It is not neutrality or isolation.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): founding leaders – Nehru (India), Nasser (Egypt), Tito (Yugoslavia), Sukarno (Indonesia), Nkrumah (Ghana). Bandung Conference (1955) prepared the way; first NAM summit at Belgrade in 1961.
• Panchsheel (five principles), in the India-China agreement of 29 April 1954:

1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
2. Mutual non-aggression.
3. Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
4. Equality and mutual benefit.
5. Peaceful co-existence.

• Other principles: anti-colonialism and anti-racism (opposed apartheid in South Africa), disarmament, support for the UN (India sent large peacekeeping forces).
• Relations with neighbours: wars with Pakistan (1947–48, 1965, 1971, Kargil 1999); Tashkent (1966) and Shimla (1972) agreements. War with China (1962). Help in the creation of Bangladesh (1971). SAARC founded in 1985.
• Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation (1971).
• Nuclear policy: Pokhran tests (1974 and 1998); "no first use" doctrine; India did not sign the NPT (considers it discriminatory).
• Gujral Doctrine (1996): generosity towards smaller neighbours without asking for reciprocity.
• Look East Policy (1991) under P. V. Narasimha Rao; renamed Act East Policy (2014).
• Neighbourhood First policy; India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (2008).
• India is a member of BRICS, G20 (hosted the G20 summit in 2023), SCO and the Quad.
• India seeks a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.
• Strategic autonomy – freedom to make choices in national interest – is the modern form of non-alignment.

Important terms

• Non-alignment – staying away from military blocs.
• Panchsheel – five principles of peaceful co-existence.
• Cold War – rivalry between US and USSR blocs (1945–1991).
• Strategic autonomy – independent decision-making in foreign policy.
• NPT – Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is non-alignment?

Non-alignment is India's policy of not joining any military bloc during the Cold War and deciding each international issue independently on its merits. It is not neutrality.

Q2. State the principles of Panchsheel.

Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful co-existence.

Q3. Explain the determinants of India's foreign policy.

• Geography.
• History and freedom struggle.
• National interest and security.
• Economic development.
• Ideals of peace (Buddha, Gandhi).
• Leadership and global environment.

Q4. Discuss the basic principles of India's foreign policy.

• Non-alignment.
• Panchsheel.
• Anti-colonialism, anti-racism.
• Support to UN; peaceful settlement.
• Disarmament.
• Article 51.

Q5. Evaluate the relevance of non-alignment today.

• Cold War ended in 1991.
• Critics: lost meaning.
• Supporters: strategic autonomy, voice of developing countries.
• India's multi-alignment (Quad, BRICS, SCO).
• Continues as independent policy in new form.

Exam tip

Write Panchsheel's five principles exactly and link them to Article 51 – a reliable scoring combination.

Quick summary

India's security and development depend greatly on its neighbours. Relations with China combine early friendship (Panchsheel, 1954), war (1962), border disputes and large trade. Relations with Pakistan have been marked by wars, the Kashmir issue and terrorism. With the smaller South Asian countries India follows a "Neighbourhood First" policy, works through SAARC and BIMSTEC, and links with South-East Asia through the Look East / Act East policy.

Key points

India–China

• India recognised the People's Republic of China early (1950). Panchsheel (five principles of peaceful co-existence) was part of the 1954 agreement on trade with the Tibet region; slogan "Hindi–Chini bhai bhai".
• Causes of tension: Tibet and the Dalai Lama's asylum in India (1959); border dispute over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh (McMahon Line).
• 1962 war: India suffered a defeat; relations stayed cold for years.
• Normalisation: Rajiv Gandhi's visit (1988); border peace agreements (1993, 1996); growing trade (China is among India's largest trading partners, with a big trade deficit for India).
• New tensions: Doklam stand-off (2017), Galwan clash (June 2020) in eastern Ladakh, China's Belt and Road Initiative and CPEC through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, China–Pakistan partnership, competition in the Indian Ocean.
• Co-operation: BRICS, SCO, climate negotiations. Disengagement talks continued after 2020.

India–Pakistan

• Partition (1947) and the Kashmir dispute shaped relations.
• Wars: 1947–48, 1965 (Tashkent Agreement, 1966), 1971 (creation of Bangladesh; Simla Agreement, 1972 – bilateral settlement of disputes), Kargil (1999).
• Indus Waters Treaty (1960) with World Bank mediation; India placed it in abeyance in 2025 after the Pahalgam terror attack.
• Peace efforts: Lahore bus journey and Lahore Declaration (1999), Agra Summit (2001), composite dialogue (2004).
• Terrorism: Parliament attack (2001), 26/11 Mumbai (2008), Uri (2016) and surgical strikes, Pulwama and Balakot (2019).
• Article 370 was abrogated in August 2019; Pakistan downgraded ties. Trade and dialogue remain largely suspended.

India and South Asia

• SAARC: founded 8 December 1985 at Dhaka; members – India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, and Afghanistan (2007). SAFTA (signed 2004). SAARC has been weak because of India–Pakistan tension; no summit since 2014.
• Bangladesh: India helped in its liberation (1971); Ganga Water Treaty (1996); Land Boundary Agreement (2015); connectivity and trade.
• Nepal: Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1950), open border; issues over the 2015 blockade and map dispute (Kalapani–Lipulekh).
• Bhutan: Friendship Treaty 1949, revised 2007; hydropower co-operation.
• Sri Lanka: Tamil issue; Indian Peace Keeping Force (1987–90); economic help during the 2022 crisis.
• Maldives: Operation Cactus (1988); development help.
• Look East Policy (1991, P. V. Narasimha Rao) became the Act East Policy (2014); BIMSTEC (1997) links South and South-East Asia around the Bay of Bengal.
• Neighbourhood First policy (2014): connectivity, trade, aid, people-to-people ties. Challenges: China's growing influence, terrorism, border disputes, migration, water sharing.

Important terms

• Panchsheel – five principles of peaceful co-existence.
• LAC – Line of Actual Control between India and China.
• LoC – Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir.
• SAARC – South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.
• Neighbourhood First – India's priority to its immediate neighbours.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is Panchsheel?

Panchsheel refers to five principles of peaceful co-existence – mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful co-existence – included in the 1954 India–China agreement.

Q2. What is the Simla Agreement?

Signed in 1972 by Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto after the 1971 war, it committed India and Pakistan to settle differences bilaterally and peacefully and to respect the Line of Control.

Q3. Discuss India–China relations.

• Early friendship and Panchsheel.
• Causes of conflict; 1962 war.
• Normalisation and trade.
• Recent tensions (Doklam, Galwan, BRI) and co-operation.

Q4. Explain the main issues in India–Pakistan relations.

• Kashmir, wars and agreements.
• Terrorism; water; trade.
• Peace efforts and present position.

Q5. Explain India's relations with South Asian countries and the role of SAARC.

• SAARC: aims, members, achievements, weakness.
• Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives.
• Neighbourhood First, Act East, BIMSTEC.

Exam tip

Recent events change fast; read the news before the exam and add one latest development in each answer (check the current year's position).