इतिहास History

Quick summary

In its first twenty years the Indian National Congress was led by Moderates, who believed in constitutional methods and British fair play. Growing dissatisfaction produced the Extremists (assertive nationalists) led by Lal-Bal-Pal. The Partition of Bengal (1905) sparked the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, the first mass movement of the national struggle. The two groups split at Surat (1907) and reunited in 1916.

Key points

• Foundation of the Congress: December 1885 at Bombay, with A. O. Hume's help; first president W. C. Bonnerjee; 72 delegates.
• Moderates (1885–1905): Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjea, M. G. Ranade. Methods: prayers, petitions, speeches, meetings – "3 Ps".
• Moderate demands: expansion of legislative councils, simultaneous ICS exams in India and England, cut in military spending, lower land revenue, protection of Indian industry.
• Achievements: economic critique of British rule (the drain theory), political education of the people, the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
• Rise of the Extremists: failure of moderate methods, famines and plague (1896–97), Curzon's policies, influence of Japan's victory over Russia (1905), revival of Indian pride.
• Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh. Tilak's slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it." He used the public Ganeshotsav (1893) and Shivjayanti (1895) to unite people.
• Partition of Bengal: announced by Curzon; came into effect on 16 October 1905; aimed to divide Hindus and Muslims and weaken Bengali nationalism.
• Swadeshi and Boycott: the boycott resolution was passed at Calcutta Town Hall on 7 August 1905; foreign cloth was burnt; swadeshi industries, stores and banks grew; national education (Bengal National College); Tagore's songs and raksha bandhan as a symbol of unity.
• Calcutta Congress (1906), under Dadabhai Naoroji, declared Swaraj as the goal and passed resolutions on swadeshi, boycott and national education.
• Surat Split (1907) between Moderates and Extremists. In 1908 Tilak was sentenced to six years and sent to Mandalay.
• The Partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911.
• Reunion and Home Rule (1916): the Lucknow session reunited the Congress; Tilak (April 1916) and Annie Besant (September 1916) started Home Rule Leagues.

Important terms

• Moderates – early Congress leaders using constitutional methods.
• Extremists – assertive nationalists demanding Swaraj through mass action.
• Swadeshi – use of goods made in one's own country.
• Boycott – refusal to buy foreign goods or use British institutions.
• Home Rule – self-government within the British Empire.

Important dates and people

• 1885 – Congress founded.
• 1905 – Partition of Bengal (16 October).
• 1906 – Calcutta Congress: Swaraj.
• 1907 – Surat Split.
• 1911 – Partition annulled; 1916 – Lucknow reunion, Home Rule Leagues.

5 important questions

Q1. Who said "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it"?

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

Q2. When did the Partition of Bengal come into effect?

On 16 October 1905.

Q3. Compare the Moderates and the Extremists.

• Leaders.
• Aims and methods.
• Social base.
• Achievements and limits (table).

Q4. Describe the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.

• Partition of Bengal and its aims.
• Forms of protest.
• Spread to other regions, including Maharashtra.
• Results.

Q5. Assess Lokmanya Tilak's contribution to the national movement.

• Kesari and Mahratta.
• Ganeshotsav and Shivjayanti.
• Swadeshi, Surat, Mandalay.
• Home Rule League; Gita Rahasya.

Exam tip

A two-column table (Moderates vs Extremists) earns quick marks. Add Maharashtra examples such as Tilak's festivals.

Quick summary

Under pressure from the national movement, the British introduced constitutional reforms in stages: the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909), the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) and the Government of India Act (1935). Each gave Indians a little more share in government, but kept real power with the British and encouraged communal division through separate electorates. The 1935 Act later became a base for the Constitution of India.

Key points

• Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms): enlarged central and provincial legislative councils; members could discuss the budget and ask supplementary questions; an Indian (S. P. Sinha) entered the Viceroy's Executive Council; separate electorates for Muslims were introduced.
• Montagu Declaration (20 August 1917) promised the gradual development of responsible government in India.
• Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms):
• Dyarchy in the provinces: transferred subjects (education, health, local self-government, agriculture) under Indian ministers responsible to the legislature; reserved subjects (finance, police, law and order, land revenue) under the Governor and his council.
• A bicameral central legislature – Council of State and Central Legislative Assembly.
• Separate electorates extended to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans; very limited franchise.
• A review after ten years, which led to the Simon Commission (1927) – boycotted because it had no Indian member.
• Steps before 1935: Nehru Report (1928), three Round Table Conferences (1930–32), the Communal Award (1932) and the Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and Dr Ambedkar, which gave reserved seats to the depressed classes in joint electorates.
• Government of India Act, 1935:
• Proposed an All-India Federation of provinces and princely states (never formed, because the princes did not join).
• Provincial autonomy: dyarchy ended in the provinces; elected ministries ran all provincial subjects.
• Dyarchy at the Centre (never put into effect).
• Three lists of subjects – Federal, Provincial and Concurrent.
• A Federal Court (set up 1937); Burma separated from India; new provinces of Sind and Orissa.
• Separate electorates continued; franchise widened to roughly a tenth of the population.
• Elections of 1937: the Congress formed ministries in most provinces; they resigned in 1939 when Britain dragged India into World War II without consultation.

Important terms

• Separate electorate – seats for a community elected only by voters of that community.
• Dyarchy – "double rule"; division of provincial subjects between Indian ministers and British officials.
• Provincial autonomy – provinces run by elected ministers with wide powers.
• Federation – a union in which powers are divided between the centre and the units.
• Franchise – the right to vote.

Important dates and people

• 1909 – Morley-Minto Reforms (Lord Morley, Secretary of State; Lord Minto, Viceroy).
• 1917 – Montagu Declaration; 1919 – Government of India Act.
• 1927 – Simon Commission; 1932 – Poona Pact.
• 1935 – Government of India Act; 1937 – provincial elections.

5 important questions

Q1. What was dyarchy?

A system under the 1919 Act in which provincial subjects were divided into transferred subjects (under Indian ministers) and reserved subjects (under the Governor and his council).

Q2. Why is the 1909 Act criticised?

Because it introduced separate electorates for Muslims, which encouraged communal politics.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the Morley-Minto Reforms.

• Expanded councils.
• New rights of members.
• Indian in the Executive Council.
• Separate electorates; evaluation.

Q4. Describe the Government of India Act, 1919 and its working.

• Dyarchy and central legislature.
• Franchise and electorates.
• Defects of dyarchy.
• Indian reaction.

Q5. Discuss the main features and importance of the Government of India Act, 1935.

• Federation, provincial autonomy, three lists.
• Federal Court; separation of Burma.
• 1937 elections.
• Influence on the Constitution of India.

Exam tip

Present the three Acts in a comparison table (year, Viceroy/Secretary, key features, defects). It makes long answers easy to write and read.

Quick summary

From 1919 to 1947, Mahatma Gandhi led the Indian freedom struggle. He turned it into a mass movement using satyagraha (truth-force) and non-violence. The three great mass movements were the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34) and the Quit India Movement (1942).

Key points

• Gandhi (born 2 October 1869, Porbandar) used satyagraha first in South Africa against racial laws; returned to India in 1915. His political guru was Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Early satyagrahas: Champaran (1917) for indigo farmers in Bihar; Ahmedabad mill strike (1918); Kheda (1918) for peasants in Gujarat, with Sardar Patel.
• Rowlatt Act (1919) allowed detention without trial. Gandhi called the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
• Jallianwala Bagh massacre, 13 April 1919, Amritsar: General Dyer ordered firing on a peaceful crowd. Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood.
• Khilafat Movement (Ali brothers) joined with Congress.
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): approved at the Nagpur session (December 1920). Boycott of government schools, courts, councils, foreign cloth; return of titles; swadeshi and khadi. Called off after the Chauri Chaura incident (4 February 1922), where police were killed; Gandhi called the movement off on 12 February 1922.
• Swaraj Party (1923) of C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru entered councils.
• Simon Commission (1928) had no Indian member – "Simon Go Back"; Lala Lajpat Rai died after a lathi charge.
• Lahore session (December 1929), president Jawaharlal Nehru: resolution for Purna Swaraj; 26 January 1930 observed as Independence Day.
• Civil Disobedience Movement: Dandi March from Sabarmati, 12 March–6 April 1930, to break the salt law. Boycott, no-tax campaigns, Dharasana salt raid. In Maharashtra, forest satyagraha (jungle satyagraha) took place, including in Vidarbha.
• Round Table Conferences (1930, 1931, 1932) in London; Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931); Gandhi attended the Second RTC.
• Communal Award (1932) and Poona Pact (24 September 1932) between Gandhi and Dr. Ambedkar – reserved seats for depressed classes within joint electorates.
• Government of India Act 1935: provincial autonomy; Congress formed ministries in 1937.
• Individual Satyagraha (1940): first satyagrahi Vinoba Bhave (from Paunar, Wardha), second Nehru.
• Cripps Mission (1942) failed.
• Quit India Movement: resolution at Bombay (Gowalia Tank) on 8 August 1942; slogan "Do or Die". Leaders arrested on 9 August; underground activity (Aruna Asaf Ali, Jayaprakash Narayan, Usha Mehta's secret radio); parallel governments at Satara (Prati Sarkar, under Nana Patil), Ballia and Tamluk. Chimur and Ashti in Vidarbha also saw major uprisings.
• Gandhi's Sevagram Ashram near Wardha was a centre of the movement from 1936.

Important terms

• Satyagraha – non-violent resistance based on truth.
• Ahimsa – non-violence.
• Purna Swaraj – complete independence.
• Civil disobedience – peaceful breaking of unjust laws.
• Prati Sarkar – parallel government in Satara.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement withdrawn?

Gandhi withdrew it in February 1922 after a violent mob burnt a police station at Chauri Chaura and killed policemen. He felt people were not yet ready for non-violent struggle.

Q2. What was the Poona Pact?

An agreement in September 1932 between Gandhi and Dr. Ambedkar. Separate electorates for depressed classes were replaced by reserved seats for them within joint electorates.

Q3. Describe the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• Background: Purna Swaraj, Simon Commission.
• Dandi March 1930.
• Salt satyagraha, boycott, no-tax, forest satyagraha.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Second RTC.
• Second phase and end in 1934.
• Mass participation of women.

Q4. Explain the Quit India Movement.

• Causes: Cripps failure, war, Japanese threat.
• 8 August 1942 resolution; "Do or Die".
• Arrests; spontaneous uprisings.
• Underground leaders; parallel governments (Satara).
• Repression; significance – showed India's will for freedom.

Q5. Assess Gandhi's contribution to the freedom movement.

• Made it a mass movement.
• Satyagraha and non-violence.
• Constructive programme: khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability.
• Involved women and peasants.
• Moral pressure on British.

Exam tip

Mention Maharashtra/Vidarbha events (Nagpur session 1920, forest satyagraha, Chimur 1942, Satara Prati Sarkar) to add local depth.

Quick summary

Alongside the non-violent movement, many young Indians chose the path of armed revolution to free India. Revolutionary activity grew in Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab, and among Indians abroad. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad and others made sacrifices that inspired the nation. Subhas Chandra Bose led the Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army, INA) during the Second World War.

Key points

• Early revolutionaries in Maharashtra: Vasudev Balwant Phadke organised an armed revolt in 1879; called the "father of armed struggle" by many.
• Chapekar brothers (Damodar and Balkrishna) shot the plague commissioner W. C. Rand in Pune (1897).
• V. D. Savarkar founded Mitra Mela (1899), later Abhinav Bharat (1904). He was sentenced to the Cellular Jail (Andaman).
• Anant Kanhere shot Nashik collector Jackson (1909).
• Bengal: Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar. Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki (Muzaffarpur bomb, 1908); Alipore Bomb case (Aurobindo Ghosh).
• Abroad: India House in London (Shyamji Krishna Varma); Madan Lal Dhingra shot Curzon Wyllie (1909). Ghadar Party (1913, San Francisco), Lala Har Dayal; Komagata Maru incident (1914).
• Hindustan Republican Association (1924); Kakori train action (1925) – Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan Singh were hanged.
• Renamed Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928 under Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh.
• Saunders' killing (1928) in Lahore to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai's death.
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw harmless bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929, shouting "Inquilab Zindabad".
• Bhagat Singh, Rajguru (from Khed, Pune district) and Sukhdev were hanged on 23 March 1931.
• Chandrashekhar Azad died fighting at Alfred Park, Allahabad (1931).
• Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930) led by Surya Sen.
• Subhas Chandra Bose: resigned from ICS (1921); Congress President at Haripura (1938) and Tripuri (1939); resigned after differences with Gandhi and formed the Forward Bloc (1939).
• Escaped house arrest in 1941, reached Germany, then Japan-controlled South-East Asia (1943).
• INA was first formed by Mohan Singh with help of Japan; Rash Behari Bose handed it over to Subhas Bose in 1943.
• Bose formed the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) at Singapore on 21 October 1943. Slogans: "Dilli Chalo", "Give me blood, and I will give you freedom". He was called "Netaji". The Rani of Jhansi Regiment (Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan) was a women's unit.
• INA fought on the Imphal-Kohima front (1944) but had to retreat.
• Bose is believed to have died in a plane crash at Taipei in August 1945 (this remains debated).
• INA trials (1945–46) at the Red Fort (Shah Nawaz Khan, P. K. Sahgal, G. S. Dhillon) caused nationwide protests; followed by the RIN (Naval) Mutiny, February 1946 in Bombay.

Important terms

• Revolutionary nationalism – armed struggle for independence.
• HSRA – Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.
• INA / Azad Hind Fauj – Indian National Army.
• Cellular Jail – prison in Andaman ("Kala Pani").
• Ghadar – "revolt"; name of a party of Indians abroad.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who were the Chapekar brothers?

Damodar and Balkrishna Chapekar of Pune shot the British plague commissioner W. C. Rand in 1897, angered by harsh plague measures. They were hanged.

Q2. What was the Assembly bomb incident?

On 8 April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw harmless bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly to protest repressive bills. They courted arrest shouting "Inquilab Zindabad".

Q3. Describe the revolutionary movement in Maharashtra.

• Vasudev Balwant Phadke.
• Chapekar brothers.
• Savarkar – Mitra Mela, Abhinav Bharat.
• Anant Kanhere – Jackson's killing.
• Rajguru's sacrifice.
• Inspired youth across India.

Q4. Explain the role of Subhas Chandra Bose in the freedom struggle.

• Congress President; Forward Bloc.
• Escape and contacts with Axis powers.
• INA leadership; Azad Hind government.
• Slogans; women's regiment.
• Imphal-Kohima campaign.
• INA trials united the nation.

Q5. Assess the contribution of the revolutionaries to Indian independence.

• Self-sacrifice inspired youth.
• Fear among British officials.
• HSRA spread socialist ideas.
• Kept spirit alive between mass movements.
• Limits: small numbers, repression.
• INA and naval mutiny shook British confidence.

Exam tip

Write dates of Bhagat Singh's martyrdom (23 March 1931) and the Azad Hind government (21 October 1943) – common short questions.

Quick summary

Maharashtra was one of the leading regions of India's freedom struggle. Pune and Bombay produced early leaders like Ranade, Gokhale and Tilak, and revolutionaries like the Chapekar brothers and Savarkar. Vidarbha played a special role: the Nagpur Congress (1920) approved Non-Cooperation, Gandhiji made Sevagram (Wardha) his base, and Chimur and Ashti rose in revolt in 1942. The Quit India resolution itself was passed in Bombay.

Key points

• Early organisations: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) with Justice M. G. Ranade; Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society (1905); Tilak led assertive nationalism through Kesari, Ganeshotsav and Shivjayanti.
• Revolutionaries: the Chapekar brothers shot Plague Commissioner Rand in Pune (1897); V. D. Savarkar founded Mitra Mela and Abhinav Bharat; Anant Kanhere shot Nashik Collector Jackson (1909).
• Nagpur session of the Congress (December 1920) approved the Non-Cooperation programme and reorganised the Congress on a linguistic-provincial basis.
• Flag (Jhanda) Satyagraha, Nagpur (1923): volunteers from all over India defied the ban on carrying the national flag in the civil lines.
• Civil Disobedience (1930): salt satyagraha at Wadala (Bombay) and Shiroda (Konkan); forest (jungle) satyagraha in Vidarbha and the Central Provinces, e.g. at Pusad led by Bapuji Aney.
• Faizpur (Jalgaon) session (1936) – the first Congress session held in a village.
• Gandhiji at Sevagram: from 1936 the ashram near Wardha became a national centre; the Wardha scheme of basic education (Nai Talim) was proposed in 1937.
• Quit India: the Congress Working Committee met at Wardha (July 1942) and the AICC passed the Quit India resolution at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, on 8 August 1942. Usha Mehta ran the secret Congress Radio.
• Chimur and Ashti (August 1942): people of Chimur (Chandrapur district) and Ashti (Wardha district) rose against British rule; many were killed or later hanged. Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj's songs inspired the people of Chimur.
• Prati Sarkar of Satara (1943–46): a parallel government led by Krantisinh Nana Patil.
• Naval Mutiny (February 1946): ratings of the Royal Indian Navy revolted in Bombay.
• Women such as Avantikabai Gokhale and many peasants, workers and students took part.

Important terms

• Jhanda Satyagraha – the flag satyagraha at Nagpur, 1923.
• Jungle (forest) satyagraha – breaking forest laws as civil disobedience.
• Prati Sarkar – parallel government.
• Nai Talim – Gandhiji's basic education through useful work.

Important dates and people

• 1897 – Rand murder (Chapekars).
• 1920 – Nagpur Congress.
• 1923 – Flag Satyagraha, Nagpur.
• 8 August 1942 – Quit India resolution, Bombay; 16 August 1942 – Chimur uprising (approx.).
• 1943–46 – Satara Prati Sarkar.

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Jhanda Satyagraha?

A satyagraha at Nagpur in 1923 in which volunteers defied the government's ban on carrying the national flag in certain areas.

Q2. Where was the Quit India resolution passed?

At Gowalia Tank (August Kranti Maidan), Bombay, on 8 August 1942.

Q3. Describe the contribution of Maharashtra to the early national movement.

• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Ranade.
• Gokhale and Tilak.
• Revolutionaries.
• Press.

Q4. Write a note on Vidarbha's role in the freedom struggle.

• Nagpur Congress 1920.
• Flag Satyagraha 1923.
• Forest satyagraha; Sevagram.
• Chimur and Ashti, 1942.

Q5. Explain the Quit India Movement in Maharashtra.

• Wardha and Bombay meetings.
• Underground work, Congress Radio.
• Chimur, Ashti.
• Satara Prati Sarkar.

Exam tip

Use local names and places – Chimur, Ashti, Sevagram, Nagpur – with dates. RTMNU examiners value Vidarbha examples.

Quick summary

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956) was a great scholar, social reformer and the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. He fought against untouchability and caste discrimination and worked for the rights of Dalits, women and workers. His struggle for social justice led to strong protections in the Constitution. He embraced Buddhism at Nagpur on 14 October 1956.

Key points

• Born on 14 April 1891 at Mhow (Madhya Pradesh); family from Ambadave village, Ratnagiri district.
• Higher studies: Columbia University (MA, PhD) and London School of Economics (DSc), and barrister from Gray's Inn – supported by Sayajirao Gaekwad of Baroda.
• Started newspapers: ***Mooknayak* (1920), Bahishkrit Bharat (1927)**, Janata, Prabuddha Bharat.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj supported him; Mangaon conference (1920).
• Founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924) with the motto "Educate, Agitate, Organise".
• Mahad Satyagraha (20 March 1927) for the right to use water of the Chavdar tank; on 25 December 1927 he publicly burnt the Manusmriti.
• Kalaram Temple entry satyagraha at Nashik (1930).
• Attended all three Round Table Conferences; demanded separate electorates for depressed classes.
• Communal Award (1932) gave separate electorates; Gandhi fasted; the Poona Pact (24 September 1932) gave reserved seats within joint electorates.
• At Yeola (1935) he declared he would not die a Hindu.
• Founded the Independent Labour Party (1936) and the Scheduled Castes Federation (1942).
• Labour Member in the Viceroy's Executive Council (1942–46).
• Founded the People's Education Society (1945); Siddharth College, Mumbai, and Milind College, Aurangabad.
• Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution; first Law Minister of independent India.
• Resigned in 1951 over the Hindu Code Bill, which aimed to give women equal rights in marriage, divorce and property.
• Constitutional provisions reflecting his idea of social justice: Article 17 (abolition of untouchability), Articles 15, 16, 46, reservations in legislatures (Art. 330, 332), Article 32.
• Books: ***Annihilation of Caste* (1936)**, The Problem of the Rupee, Who Were the Shudras?, The Buddha and His Dhamma.
• Dhammachakra Pravartan: embraced Buddhism with lakhs of followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur, 14 October 1956.
• Died on 6 December 1956 (Mahaparinirvan Din) in Delhi. Awarded Bharat Ratna in 1990.

Important terms

• Social justice – equal dignity and opportunity for all, especially the oppressed.
• Depressed classes – earlier term for Scheduled Castes.
• Satyagraha – non-violent struggle (Mahad, Kalaram).
• Deekshabhoomi – place of conversion at Nagpur.
• Hindu Code Bill – reform of Hindu personal law for women's rights.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Mahad Satyagraha?

In March 1927 Dr. Ambedkar led untouchables to drink water from the Chavdar tank at Mahad, which they had been barred from. It asserted their equal civic rights.

Q2. Why did Dr. Ambedkar resign as Law Minister?

He resigned in 1951 because the Hindu Code Bill, which gave women equal rights in property, marriage and divorce, was not passed as he wanted.

Q3. Explain Dr. Ambedkar's struggle against untouchability.

• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha.
• Newspapers.
• Mahad and Kalaram satyagrahas.
• Burning of Manusmriti.
• Round Table Conferences; Poona Pact.
• Constitutional safeguards.

Q4. Describe Dr. Ambedkar's contribution to the Indian Constitution.

• Chairman of Drafting Committee.
• Fundamental Rights, Article 17, 32.
• Reservations and safeguards.
• Federal structure with strong centre.
• Warning about social and economic democracy.

Q5. Discuss Dr. Ambedkar's views on social justice and women's rights.

• Caste as the root of injustice; Annihilation of Caste.
• Education as a weapon.
• Equality of status and opportunity.
• Hindu Code Bill – women's rights.
• Labour rights.
• Buddhism as a path of equality.

Exam tip

Learn the motto "Educate, Agitate, Organise" and the key dates (1927, 1930, 1932, 1956) – they form the backbone of any answer.

Quick summary

Communal politics – organising people mainly as members of a religious community – grew in India from the late 19th century. The All-India Muslim League was founded in 1906, and the British encouraged division through separate electorates. There were periods of Hindu-Muslim unity (Lucknow Pact, Khilafat), but by the 1930s the two-nation theory gained ground, leading to the Lahore (Pakistan) Resolution of 1940.

Key points

• Background: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's Aligarh Movement promoted modern education among Muslims (MAO College, Aligarh, 1875) and advised them to stay away from the Congress.
• British policy of "divide and rule" after 1857, and fears of the Muslim elite about majority rule.
• Simla Deputation (1 October 1906): Muslim leaders led by the Aga Khan met Viceroy Minto and demanded separate electorates.
• All-India Muslim League founded at Dhaka on 30 December 1906 (Nawab Salimullah; Aga Khan its first president). It supported the Partition of Bengal.
• Separate electorates were granted in the 1909 Act.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): the Congress and the League agreed on joint demands; the Congress accepted separate electorates. M. A. Jinnah played a key role.
• Khilafat and Non-Cooperation (1919–22): a high point of Hindu-Muslim unity under the Ali brothers and Gandhiji.
• After 1922 communal riots increased; the Hindu Mahasabha (1915) and other communal bodies also grew.
• Nehru Report (1928) rejected separate electorates; Jinnah answered with his Fourteen Points (1929).
• Muhammad Iqbal's Allahabad address (1930) proposed a Muslim state in north-west India; Choudhary Rahmat Ali coined the name "Pakistan" (1933).
• 1937 elections: the League did poorly; the Congress refused a coalition with it in the United Provinces. Jinnah reorganised the League and called the end of Congress ministries a "Day of Deliverance" (22 December 1939).
• Two-nation theory: Hindus and Muslims were described as two separate nations.
• Lahore Resolution (23 March 1940) demanded independent states for Muslim-majority areas – the basis of the Pakistan demand.

Important terms

• Communalism – politics based on religious community against other communities.
• Separate electorate – seats elected only by voters of one community.
• Two-nation theory – the claim that Hindus and Muslims form two nations.
• Lucknow Pact – Congress-League agreement of 1916.

Important dates and people

• 1875 – MAO College, Aligarh.
• 1906 – Simla Deputation; Muslim League founded.
• 1916 – Lucknow Pact.
• 1929 – Jinnah's Fourteen Points; 1930 – Iqbal's address.
• 1940 – Lahore Resolution.

5 important questions

Q1. When and where was the Muslim League founded?

On 30 December 1906 at Dhaka.

Q2. What was the Lucknow Pact?

An agreement of 1916 between the Congress and the Muslim League to make joint demands; the Congress accepted separate electorates.

Q3. Explain the causes of the growth of communalism in modern India.

• British divide-and-rule policy.
• Separate electorates.
• Economic backwardness and competition for jobs.
• Communal organisations and propaganda.

Q4. Trace the history of the Muslim League from 1906 to 1940.

• Foundation and early aims.
• Lucknow Pact and Khilafat.
• Fourteen Points; Iqbal.
• 1937 elections; Lahore Resolution.

Q5. Discuss the two-nation theory and its consequences.

• Meaning and supporters.
• Response of nationalist leaders.
• Lahore Resolution.
• Partition of 1947.

Exam tip

Learn the chain 1906 – 1909 – 1916 – 1929 – 1940. Mention the British role in every answer on communalism.

Quick summary

After the Second World War, Britain was weak and Indian demands for freedom were strong. The Cabinet Mission (1946) failed to keep India united; communal violence grew after the Muslim League's Direct Action Day. Finally, the Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) and the Indian Independence Act 1947 divided British India into two dominions, India and Pakistan, on 15 August 1947 (Pakistan on 14 August).

Key points

• Growth of communalism: separate electorates (1909), British policy of "divide and rule", the two-nation theory.
• The Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah passed the Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution) on 23 March 1940, demanding separate Muslim states.
• August Offer (1940), Cripps Mission (1942) – offered dominion status after the war with the right of provinces to opt out; rejected.
• C. R. Formula (1944) of C. Rajagopalachari and Gandhi-Jinnah talks (1944) failed.
• Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (June 1945) failed over the League's demand to nominate all Muslim members.
• Elections of 1945–46: Congress won most general seats; League won most Muslim seats.
• Cabinet Mission (March–June 1946): Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A. V. Alexander. Proposed a Union of India with limited central powers, grouping of provinces (A, B, C), and a Constituent Assembly. Rejected the demand for a full Pakistan.
• Direct Action Day (16 August 1946): League's call led to massive riots in Calcutta (the "Great Calcutta Killing"), then Noakhali and Bihar.
• Interim Government formed on 2 September 1946 under Jawaharlal Nehru; the League joined later.
• Attlee's declaration (20 February 1947): Britain would leave India by June 1948.
• Lord Mountbatten became Viceroy in March 1947.
• Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947): partition of India; partition of Punjab and Bengal by vote of their legislators; referendums in NWFP and Sylhet; princely states free to join either dominion.
• Indian Independence Act passed by the British Parliament in July 1947 (royal assent 18 July 1947): two dominions from 15 August 1947; British paramountcy over princely states ended.
• Radcliffe Line: boundary drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe; announced on 17 August 1947.
• Partition violence: lakhs killed and about 1–1.5 crore people displaced (estimates vary widely); huge refugee problem.
• Integration of princely states: about 560+ states; Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon used the Instrument of Accession. Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Operation Polo, September 1948), and Kashmir (accession, October 1947) were difficult cases.
• Marathwada was part of Hyderabad State; it was freed in 1948 (Marathwada Liberation Day – 17 September).
• Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948.
• Why partition was accepted: to stop communal violence, the League's refusal to cooperate, failure of the Interim Government, urgency of transfer of power.

Important terms

• Two-nation theory – idea that Hindus and Muslims are separate nations.
• Dominion – self-governing state under the British Crown.
• Radcliffe Line – India-Pakistan boundary.
• Instrument of Accession – document by which a princely state joined India.
• Paramountcy – British supremacy over princely states.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Mountbatten Plan?

Announced on 3 June 1947, it proposed the partition of British India into India and Pakistan, partition of Punjab and Bengal, and freedom for princely states to join either dominion.

Q2. What was Direct Action Day?

It was 16 August 1946, when the Muslim League called for direct action to achieve Pakistan. It led to terrible communal riots in Calcutta.

Q3. Explain the proposals of the Cabinet Mission Plan.

• Union of India with defence, foreign affairs, communications.
• Provinces with residuary powers.
• Grouping of provinces A, B, C.
• Constituent Assembly.
• Interim Government.
• Rejected full Pakistan.

Q4. Describe the main provisions of the Indian Independence Act 1947.

• Two dominions from 15 August 1947.
• Partition of Punjab and Bengal.
• Constituent Assemblies as legislatures.
• End of the Secretary of State's office.
• Paramountcy lapsed.
• Governor-General for each dominion.

Q5. Explain the role of Sardar Patel in the integration of princely states.

• States Department with V. P. Menon.
• Instrument of Accession and Standstill Agreement.
• Persuasion and pressure.
• Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir cases.
• Created a united India – "Iron Man of India".

Exam tip

A clear chronology from 1940 to 1948 is the best structure for any question on partition.

Quick summary

At independence India had more than 560 princely states covering about two-fifths of its area. When British paramountcy ended in 1947, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon brought almost all of them into the Indian Union through the Instrument of Accession. Junagadh, Kashmir and Hyderabad were difficult cases. Hyderabad, which included Marathwada, was freed on 17 September 1948 after a people's struggle and police action.

Key points

• Paramountcy lapsed: under the Indian Independence Act (1947), princes were free to join India or Pakistan or, in theory, stay independent.
• The States Department was set up in July 1947 under Sardar Patel, with V. P. Menon as secretary.
• Instrument of Accession: states handed over defence, external affairs and communications to India. A Standstill Agreement kept existing arrangements going.
• By 15 August 1947 almost all states had acceded, helped by Patel's persuasion and the pressure of people's movements in the states (praja mandals).
• Junagadh: the Nawab acceded to Pakistan though most people were Hindu; after a popular revolt and Indian action, a plebiscite (February 1948) confirmed union with India.
• Kashmir: Maharaja Hari Singh delayed; after tribal raiders from Pakistan invaded, he signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947.
• Hyderabad: ruled by Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan; it included Telangana, Marathwada and parts of Karnataka. The Nizam wanted independence and signed only a Standstill Agreement (November 1947).
• The Razakars, an armed militia led by Qasim Rizvi, terrorised the people.
• Hyderabad Liberation Struggle: the Hyderabad State Congress under Swami Ramanand Tirth led satyagraha and an armed resistance from border camps; in Marathwada leaders such as Govindbhai Shroff and others organised the people. The Telangana peasants also rose.
• Operation Polo (police action), 13–17 September 1948: the Indian Army entered Hyderabad; the Nizam surrendered on 17 September 1948. The day is celebrated as Marathwada Mukti Sangram Din.
• After integration: smaller states were merged into provinces or grouped into unions; princes received privy purses (abolished in 1971); the States Reorganisation Act (1956) redrew boundaries, and Marathwada later became part of Bombay State and then Maharashtra (1960).

Important terms

• Princely state – a state ruled by an Indian prince under British paramountcy.
• Paramountcy – British supremacy over the princely states.
• Instrument of Accession – the document by which a state joined India.
• Razakars – armed volunteers of the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen in Hyderabad.
• Privy purse – annual allowance paid to former rulers.

Important dates and people

• 5 July 1947 – States Department begins work (approx.).
• 26 October 1947 – Kashmir accedes.
• February 1948 – Junagadh plebiscite.
• 13–17 September 1948 – Operation Polo; 17 September – Hyderabad liberated.
• Sardar Patel – "Iron Man of India".

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Instrument of Accession?

The legal document by which a princely state joined the Indian Union, handing over defence, external affairs and communications.

Q2. What is celebrated on 17 September in Maharashtra?

Marathwada Mukti Sangram Din, marking the liberation of Hyderabad State (including Marathwada) from the Nizam's rule in 1948.

Q3. Describe the role of Sardar Patel in the integration of princely states.

• States Department and V. P. Menon.
• Persuasion and pressure.
• Instrument of Accession and Standstill Agreement.
• Results.

Q4. Explain the cases of Junagadh and Kashmir.

• Junagadh: Nawab's choice, revolt, plebiscite.
• Kashmir: delay, invasion, accession.
• Consequences.

Q5. Write an account of the Hyderabad Liberation Struggle.

• Nizam's policy and the Razakars.
• Hyderabad State Congress, Swami Ramanand Tirth.
• Struggle in Marathwada and Telangana.
• Operation Polo and its results.

Exam tip

For Maharashtra exams, always connect Hyderabad with Marathwada and 17 September. Name Swami Ramanand Tirth and Operation Polo.

Quick summary

The Samyukta Maharashtra Movement (1946–1960) demanded a single state for all Marathi-speaking people, with Mumbai as its capital. Marathi areas were then divided among the Bombay State, the Central Provinces and Berar (Vidarbha) and Hyderabad State (Marathwada). After a long struggle, including the sacrifice of 106 martyrs, the state of Maharashtra was formed on 1 May 1960.

Key points

• Background: demand for linguistic provinces had been accepted by the Congress in its Nagpur session (1920).
• Samyukta Maharashtra Parishad was formed in 1946 (Belgaum sahitya sammelan resolution); Shankarrao Deo was a leading figure.
• Dar Commission (1948) and the JVP Committee (1948–49) of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya did not favour immediate linguistic states.
• Akola Pact (1947) and Nagpur Pact (28 September 1953): leaders of Vidarbha, Marathwada and western Maharashtra agreed to join one state. The Nagpur Pact promised one session of the legislature every year at Nagpur, a High Court bench at Nagpur, and fair development of backward regions.
• Potti Sriramulu's death (1952) after fasting led to the creation of Andhra State (1953).
• States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) (1953–55): Fazal Ali (chairman), H. N. Kunzru, K. M. Panikkar. It recommended a bilingual Bombay State and a separate Vidarbha state.
• The central plan of 1956 to make Mumbai a separate centrally administered unit caused anger.
• Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti was formed on 6 February 1956. Leaders: Keshavrao Jedhe, S. M. Joshi, Acharya Prahlad Keshav Atre (newspaper Maratha), Shripad Amrit Dange, Prabodhankar Thackeray, Senapati Bapat, Uddhavrao Patil.
• Flora Fountain firing (21 November 1955) and firing in January 1956 in Mumbai killed many protesters. In all, 106 people were killed; Hutatma Chowk (Martyrs' Square) at Flora Fountain is their memorial.
• C. D. Deshmukh resigned from the Union Cabinet (Finance Minister) in 1956 in protest.
• Shahir Amar Shaikh, Shahir Annabhau Sathe and Shahir Gavhankar spread the movement through songs and powadas.
• States Reorganisation Act, 1956: a large bilingual Bombay State formed on 1 November 1956, including Marathwada and Vidarbha (Marathi areas of Madhya Pradesh), with Gujarat; Yashwantrao Chavan became its Chief Minister.
• In the 1957 elections, the Samiti did very well in Marathi areas, showing popular support.
• Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960: Bombay State divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat on 1 May 1960. Mumbai became the capital of Maharashtra. Yashwantrao Chavan was the first Chief Minister.
• Marathi-speaking areas like Belgaum, Karwar and Nipani remained in Mysore (Karnataka); the border dispute continues.
• 1 May is celebrated as Maharashtra Din.

Important terms

• Samyukta Maharashtra – united Maharashtra of all Marathi speakers.
• Linguistic state – state formed on the basis of language.
• Bilingual state – state with two major language groups (Bombay State 1956–60).
• Hutatma – martyr.
• Nagpur Pact – agreement ensuring Vidarbha's place in the new state.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Nagpur Pact?

Signed on 28 September 1953, it was an agreement among leaders of Vidarbha, Marathwada and western Maharashtra to form a united Marathi state. It promised a legislature session at Nagpur and fair development of all regions.

Q2. What is Hutatma Chowk?

It is the memorial at Flora Fountain, Mumbai, built in honour of the 106 martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement.

Q3. Describe the role of the States Reorganisation Commission.

• Members: Fazal Ali, Kunzru, Panikkar.
• Recommended linguistic states broadly.
• Bombay bilingual state; separate Vidarbha.
• Mumbai issue sparked agitation.
• Led to 1956 Act.

Q4. Explain the contribution of leaders and shahirs to the movement.

• S. M. Joshi, Dange, Atre, Jedhe, Prabodhankar Thackeray.
• Acharya Atre's newspaper Maratha.
• C. D. Deshmukh's resignation.
• Shahirs Amar Shaikh, Annabhau Sathe.
• Mass mobilisation of workers and peasants.

Q5. Give an account of the formation of Maharashtra state.

• Background and early demand.
• SRC and bilingual state.
• Samiti's agitation; 106 martyrs.
• 1957 elections.
• Bombay Reorganisation Act 1960.
• 1 May 1960 – Maharashtra with Mumbai.

Exam tip

This is a favourite topic in Maharashtra universities – remember the 106 martyrs, Nagpur Pact (1953) and 1 May 1960.