समाजशास्त्र Sociology

Quick summary

Family and marriage are the oldest institutions of Indian society. The traditional Indian family was the joint family, and Hindu marriage was seen as a sacred duty (sanskar). Muslim marriage is a civil contract (nikah). This topic covers the joint family, Hindu and Muslim marriage, marriage laws, and recent changes.

Key points

• Joint family – I. Karve: a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, take part in common worship and are related as some kind of kindred.
• Features of joint family: large size, common residence and kitchen, common property, common worship, authority of the eldest male (karta), mutual obligations.
• Merits: social security for old, sick and widows; economic cooperation; division of labour; socialization; preservation of culture.
• Demerits: lack of privacy, low status of women, conflicts, encouragement of idleness, restrictions on individual freedom.
• Changes: shift towards nuclear families due to industrialisation, urbanisation, education, migration, women's employment and legal changes. Many families remain functionally joint even when living apart.
• Hindu marriage – a religious sacrament with three aims: dharma (duty), praja (progeny) and rati (pleasure), dharma being the highest. Saptapadi (seven steps) completes the marriage.
• Eight forms of Hindu marriage (Manu): Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya (approved); Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa, Paishacha (disapproved).
• Muslim marriage (nikah) – a civil contract; needs proposal (ijab) and acceptance (qubul), witnesses, and mehr (dower) for the wife.
• Laws: Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856; Special Marriage Act 1954; Hindu Marriage Act 1955 (monogamy, divorce rights); Dowry Prohibition Act 1961; Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006 (minimum age 18 for girls and 21 for boys); Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005; Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act 2019 (made instant triple talaq void and punishable).
• Changes in marriage: later age at marriage, more love and inter-caste marriages, free choice, rise in divorce, decline of child marriage, but dowry still persists.

Important terms

• Joint family (एकत्र कुटुंब) – several generations living and sharing together.
• Karta – head of the Hindu joint family who manages property.
• Sanskar – sacred ritual; Hindu marriage is one of them.
• Mehr – amount given or promised to the wife in Muslim marriage.
• Dowry – money or goods given by the bride's family to the groom's family; illegal in India.
• Hypergamy (anuloma) – marriage of a woman into a higher caste; hypogamy (pratiloma) is the reverse.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is a joint family?

A joint family has members of three or more generations living together under one roof, sharing a common kitchen, property and worship, under the authority of the eldest male.

Q2. What are the aims of Hindu marriage?

Hindu marriage has three aims: dharma (religious duty), praja (children) and rati (sexual pleasure). Dharma is considered the most important.

Q3. Explain the features, merits and demerits of the joint family.

• Definition (Karve).
• Features.
• Merits.
• Demerits.
• Brief note on its present state.

Q4. Explain the changes in the Indian family system.

• Causes: industrialisation, urbanisation, education, law, women's work, migration.
• Changes in structure: nuclear families.
• Changes in functions and authority.
• Status of women and children.
• Functional jointness continues.

Q5. Compare Hindu and Muslim marriage.

• Sacrament vs contract.
• Ritual vs proposal and acceptance.
• Mehr in Muslim marriage.
• Rules of divorce.
• Laws governing each.
• Common changes today.

Exam tip

Mention laws with years (Hindu Marriage Act 1955, Dowry Prohibition Act 1961). Accurate law names and years earn quick marks.

Quick summary

The status of women means their position in society compared with men — in rights, education, work, family and politics. The status of Indian women has changed over history: relatively respected in the early Vedic period, declining in later periods, and improving since the social reform movement and Independence. This topic covers this history, problems women face, and constitutional and legal measures.

Key points

• Vedic period: women had access to education and religious rituals; learned women like Gargi and Maitreyi are mentioned.
• Later Vedic and medieval periods: status declined — child marriage, purdah, sati, ban on widow remarriage, no right to property, low literacy.
• Social reform movement (19th century): Raja Ram Mohan Roy worked against sati (abolished by Lord William Bentinck in 1829); Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar for widow remarriage (Act of 1856); Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule opened a school for girls in Pune in 1848; Pandita Ramabai, Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve (women's university, 1916), Tarabai Shinde (Stri Purush Tulana, 1882).
• Constitutional provisions: Article 14 (equality before law), Article 15(1) (no discrimination by sex) and 15(3) (special provisions for women), Article 16 (equal opportunity in jobs), Article 39(d) (equal pay for equal work), Article 42 (maternity relief), Article 51A(e) (renounce practices derogatory to women).
• Political representation: 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992) reserved one-third seats for women in local bodies. The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023 (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam) provides one-third reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies, to come into effect after the next census and delimitation.
• Important laws: Hindu Succession Act 1956 (amended in 2005 to give daughters equal coparcenary rights), Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, Maternity Benefit Act 1961, Equal Remuneration Act 1976, Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2013, PCPNDT Act 1994 (bans sex selection).
• Institutions: National Commission for Women (1992), Ministry of Women and Child Development; schemes like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015) and self-help groups.
• Problems women still face: gender discrimination, low sex ratio, domestic violence, dowry, sexual harassment, unequal wages, low workforce participation, under-representation in politics, health and nutrition gaps.
• Factors improving status: education, employment, legal rights, media, women's movements, economic independence.

Important terms

• Status (दर्जा) – position of a person in society.
• Gender – socially created roles of men and women (different from biological sex).
• Patriarchy – social system where men hold power and authority.
• Sex ratio – number of females per 1,000 males.
• Women empowerment – increasing women's power to make choices about their own lives.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by the status of women?

It means the position women hold in society in relation to men — their rights, roles, opportunities and respect in family, economy and politics.

Q2. What is the contribution of Savitribai Phule?

Savitribai Phule is regarded as India's first woman teacher. With Jyotirao Phule she started a school for girls in Pune in 1848 and worked for widows and lower castes.

Q3. Explain the status of women in different periods of Indian history.

• Vedic: education, respect.
• Later Vedic and Smriti period: decline.
• Medieval: purdah, sati, child marriage.
• British period: reform movement.
• After Independence: legal equality and progress.

Q4. Explain the constitutional and legal provisions for women.

• Articles 14, 15, 16, 39(d), 42, 51A(e).
• Reservation in local bodies and the 2023 Act.
• Laws on dowry, domestic violence, harassment, succession, maternity.
• National Commission for Women.

Q5. Discuss the problems of women in modern India and suggest remedies.

• Discrimination, violence, dowry.
• Sex ratio and female foeticide.
• Unequal wages and low work participation.
• Health and education gaps.
• Remedies: education, strict laws, awareness, economic independence, political participation.

Exam tip

Include Maharashtra's reformers — the Phules, Maharshi Karve, Pandita Ramabai and Tarabai Shinde — to give your answer a strong local base.

Quick summary

Weaker sections are groups that suffered social, educational and economic disadvantage for long periods – mainly Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and religious minorities. The Constitution of India gives them special protection and opportunities so that equality becomes real. This topic explains who the weaker sections are, their problems and the constitutional safeguards and welfare measures for them.

Key points

• Scheduled Castes – castes that faced untouchability; notified under Article 341. They were about 16.6% of India's population in Census 2011.
• Scheduled Tribes – notified under Article 342; about 8.6% (Census 2011).
• Other Backward Classes (OBCs) – socially and educationally backward classes. The Mandal Commission (report 1980) recommended 27% reservation in central jobs; implemented in 1990 and upheld in Indra Sawhney case (1992), which set a 50% ceiling and excluded the "creamy layer".
• Minorities – religious and linguistic minorities; the National Commission for Minorities Act 1992 notifies six religious minorities (Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, Jains).
• Problems of weaker sections: untouchability and atrocities, landlessness, poverty, bonded labour, low education, under-representation in jobs and power, social exclusion.
• Protective (social) safeguards: Article 17 abolishes untouchability; Article 23 bans forced labour; Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955/1976; SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.
• Educational and economic safeguards: Article 15(4) and 15(5) (special provisions in education), Article 16(4) (reservation in public jobs), Article 46 (promotion of educational and economic interests), Articles 29–30 (cultural and educational rights of minorities).
• Political safeguards: Articles 330 and 332 (reserved seats for SCs/STs in Lok Sabha and state assemblies), 73rd and 74th Amendments (reservation in local bodies).
• Commissions: National Commission for Scheduled Castes (Article 338), for Scheduled Tribes (Article 338A, 2004), for Backward Classes (Article 338B, constitutional status by the 102nd Amendment, 2018); Article 340 (commission to study backward classes).
• Recent change: 103rd Amendment (2019) – 10% reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS) among those not covered by other reservations.
• Welfare measures: post-matric scholarships, hostels, Stand-Up India loans, Maharashtra's Social Justice Department, BARTI (Pune) for SC students' training and research.
• Evaluation: a growing educated middle class and political leadership among SCs, STs and OBCs; but benefits are uneven, atrocities continue and the private sector is outside reservation.

Important terms

• Weaker sections – groups suffering long-standing social and economic disadvantage.
• Reservation – setting aside a share of seats or posts for disadvantaged groups.
• Creamy layer – better-off members of OBCs who are excluded from reservation benefits.
• Protective discrimination – special favourable treatment to remove past inequality.
• Atrocity – a crime of humiliation or violence against SC/ST persons.

Important thinkers and theories

• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar – architect of constitutional safeguards; fought for depressed classes.
• B. P. Mandal – chairman of the Second Backward Classes Commission.
• Marc Galanter – called India's policy "competing equalities" (1984).

5 important questions

Q1. What is the creamy layer?

It is the economically and socially advanced section among OBCs whose members are not entitled to reservation, as decided in the Indra Sawhney case (1992).

Q2. Which Article abolishes untouchability?

Article 17 of the Constitution abolishes untouchability and makes its practice in any form an offence.

Q3. Explain the constitutional safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

• Social: Articles 17, 23; laws of 1955 and 1989.
• Educational and economic: Articles 15(4), 16(4), 46.
• Political: Articles 330, 332; local bodies.
• Commissions: Articles 338 and 338A.

Q4. Discuss the problems of weaker sections in India.

• Untouchability and atrocities.
• Poverty, landlessness, bonded labour.
• Low education and health.
• Under-representation; exclusion of minorities.

Q5. Evaluate the policy of reservation in India.

• Aim and history (Mandal Commission).
• Achievements: mobility, representation.
• Criticisms: uneven benefits, creamy layer, merit debate.
• Recent changes (EWS) and suggestions.

Exam tip

Learn article numbers in pairs: 17 (untouchability), 15(4)/16(4) (reservation), 330/332 (seats), 338/338A (commissions). Correct article numbers fetch easy marks.

Quick summary

A social problem is a condition that affects a large number of people in an undesirable way and which society believes can be solved by collective action. India faces many social problems such as poverty, unemployment, casteism, communalism, dowry, alcoholism, drug addiction, corruption and juvenile delinquency. This topic explains the meaning, causes and remedies of major problems.

Key points

• Definition (Fuller and Myers): a social problem is a condition which is defined by a considerable number of persons as a deviation from some social norm which they cherish.
• Features: affects many people, seen as harmful, has social causes, needs collective action, problems are interrelated, change over time.
• Poverty – inability to meet basic needs of food, clothing, shelter, health and education. Causes: unemployment, low productivity, population growth, inequality, illiteracy.
• Unemployment – people willing and able to work do not get work. Types: open, disguised, seasonal, educated, structural.
• Dowry – illegal under the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961; leads to harassment and dowry deaths (Section 304B of the old IPC; now covered in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023).
• Casteism and untouchability – discrimination by caste, despite Article 17.
• Communalism – using religion for hatred between communities; leads to riots and violence.
• Alcoholism and drug addiction – harm health, family and economy. Laws: NDPS Act 1985. Prohibition exists in some states (e.g. Gujarat, Bihar; Wardha and Gadchiroli districts in Maharashtra had prohibition).
• Juvenile delinquency – crimes committed by children below 18. Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2015 deals with it.
• Corruption – misuse of public office for private gain. Laws: Prevention of Corruption Act 1988; Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013; Right to Information Act 2005.
• Child labour – Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986, amended 2016; Article 24 bans employment of children below 14 in hazardous work.
• Remedies: education and awareness, strict enforcement of laws, economic development and employment, role of NGOs and media, social reform, value education.

Important terms

• Social problem (सामाजिक समस्या) – a harmful condition needing collective solution.
• Deviance – behaviour that violates social norms.
• Delinquency – law-breaking by minors.
• Communalism – hostility based on religion.
• Disorganisation – breakdown of social order and norms.

Important thinkers and theories

• Fuller and Myers – definition of social problem; stages: awareness, policy determination, reform.
• Emile Durkheim – anomie (normlessness) as a cause of deviance and suicide.
• R.K. Merton – strain theory: gap between cultural goals and legitimate means leads to deviance.
• Edwin Sutherland – differential association: crime is learned from close groups; also coined "white-collar crime".

5 important questions

Q1. Define social problem.

Fuller and Myers define a social problem as a condition defined by a considerable number of people as a deviation from some social norm that they value. It needs collective action to solve.

Q2. What is juvenile delinquency?

Juvenile delinquency means law-breaking acts committed by children below 18 years. In India it is dealt with under the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.

Q3. Explain the causes and remedies of the dowry problem.

• Meaning and legal position.
• Causes: tradition, status, greed, hypergamy, low status of women.
• Effects: harassment, debt, female foeticide, dowry deaths.
• Remedies: education, women's economic independence, strict laws, social boycott, simple marriages.

Q4. Discuss the problem of corruption in India.

• Meaning and forms (bribery, nepotism, embezzlement).
• Causes: greed, weak laws, red tape, political funding.
• Effects on development and trust.
• Remedies: RTI, Lokpal, e-governance, transparency, values.

Q5. Explain the characteristics of social problems and their interrelation.

• Features listed above.
• Example: poverty leads to child labour, illiteracy and crime.
• Need for an integrated approach.

Exam tip

For any social problem, follow the order: meaning → causes → effects → remedies. Add one relevant law with its year.

Quick summary

Indian society has changed through several processes. Sanskritisation explains how lower castes try to raise their status by adopting the customs of higher castes. Westernisation explains changes due to British rule and Western culture. Modernisation is a wider process of rational, scientific and democratic change. This topic explains these three processes, their features and effects, mainly following M. N. Srinivas and Yogendra Singh.

Key points

• Sanskritisation – M. N. Srinivas first used the term in Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India (1952). It is the process by which a lower caste or tribe changes its customs, rituals, beliefs and way of life in the direction of a higher, often "twice-born", caste (giving up meat and liquor, adopting Brahminical rituals, wearing the sacred thread, changing names).
• Srinivas first called it "Brahminisation" but changed the term because the models were not always Brahmins – Kshatriyas, Vaishyas or a local dominant caste could also be models.
• Features: it gives positional change, not structural change – the caste moves up but the caste hierarchy remains; it usually takes a generation or more; it often follows economic or political improvement.
• Dominant caste (Srinivas) – a caste that is numerically large, owns much land, has economic and political power and good ritual status in a village.
• Westernisation – changes in Indian society and culture due to about 150 years of British rule, in technology, institutions, ideology and values (Social Change in Modern India, 1966).
• Aspects of Westernisation: English education, printing, railways, law courts, bureaucracy, newspapers; new values like humanitarianism, equality and rationalism; changes in dress, food and manners. It helped social reform (abolition of sati 1829, widow remarriage 1856).
• Westernisation is ethically neutral – it does not imply good or bad; it started with the upper castes and spread downward.
• Modernisation – a broader process of change from traditional to modern society: scientific outlook, rationality, industrialisation, urbanisation, democracy, secularism, universal education and achievement-based status. It is not limited to imitating the West.
• Yogendra Singh (Modernization of Indian Tradition, 1973) showed that Indian tradition and modernity coexist and adapt to each other.
• Secularisation – what was earlier regarded as religious ceases to be so; growth of rational, this-worldly thinking.
• Interrelation: a caste may Sanskritise in ritual life and Westernise or modernise in education and occupation at the same time.

Important terms

• Sanskritisation – upward caste mobility by imitating higher-caste customs.
• Westernisation – changes due to British/Western contact.
• Modernisation – change towards rational, scientific and democratic society.
• Dominant caste – a powerful caste in a village due to land, numbers and power.
• Positional change – change in the position of a group without change in the system.

Important thinkers and theories

• M. N. Srinivas – Sanskritisation, Westernisation, dominant caste.
• Yogendra Singh – modernisation of Indian tradition.
• Daniel Lerner – modernisation as a process of mobility, empathy and participation.

5 important questions

Q1. Define Sanskritisation.

According to M. N. Srinivas, Sanskritisation is the process by which a low caste or tribe changes its customs, rituals and way of life in the direction of a high caste in order to claim a higher position in the caste hierarchy.

Q2. What is a dominant caste?

A caste that is numerically strong, owns a large share of land, holds economic and political power and has reasonably high ritual status in a village.

Q3. Explain the features and limitations of Sanskritisation.

• Meaning and origin of the concept.
• Models: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, dominant caste.
• Features: positional change, group process, slow.
• Limitations: no structural change, ignores tribes and other religions, may increase rigidity.

Q4. Discuss the impact of Westernisation on Indian society.

• Meaning and levels (technology, institutions, values).
• Education, law, communication, reforms.
• Changes in caste, family, women's status.
• Criticism: elitist, limited to upper classes at first.

Q5. Explain the meaning and characteristics of modernisation in India.

• Definition and difference from Westernisation.
• Features: rationality, science, democracy, industry, urbanisation.
• Yogendra Singh's view.
• Effects and problems of modernisation.

Exam tip

Always write Srinivas's name with the year 1952 for Sanskritisation and stress "positional, not structural change" – this phrase is what examiners look for.

Quick summary

Globalisation is the growing interconnection of the world's economies, cultures and people through trade, investment, technology, media and migration. India opened its economy in 1991 through the policy of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation (LPG). This has deeply changed Indian employment, family life, culture, values and inequality. This topic explains the meaning of globalisation and its social effects on India.

Key points

• Meaning: Anthony Giddens (1990) described globalisation as the intensification of worldwide social relations that link distant places, so that local events are shaped by events far away.
• New Economic Policy, 1991 – Liberalisation (fewer controls and licences), Privatisation (greater role of private companies, disinvestment), Globalisation (opening to foreign trade and investment).
• Dimensions: economic (trade, multinational companies, outsourcing), technological (internet, mobile phones), cultural (films, food, fashion, music), political (WTO, international agreements) and social (migration, global civil society).
• Positive effects on India: growth of IT and service sectors (Bengaluru, Pune, Hyderabad), new jobs for educated youth, a large middle class, better consumer goods, more women in paid work, spread of communication and global awareness.
• Effects on family and marriage: more nuclear and dual-earner families, late marriage, inter-caste and inter-regional marriages in cities, elderly parents left alone when children migrate.
• Cultural effects: consumerism, fast food and malls; cultural homogenisation (similar tastes worldwide); George Ritzer called this "McDonaldization of society" (1993). At the same time, glocalisation (Roland Robertson) – global products adapt to local tastes, e.g. paneer burgers, regional-language channels.
• Negative effects: growing inequality between rich and poor and between urban and rural areas; informal and insecure jobs (contract work, gig workers); pressure on small farmers and artisans from global competition; displacement and environmental damage; erosion of local languages and crafts.
• Agrarian distress: price fluctuations and costly inputs added to farmer indebtedness; farmer suicides in Vidarbha are often discussed in this context.
• Responses: anti-globalisation and environmental movements, swadeshi campaigns, demand for social security; government schemes such as MGNREGA and food security (2013).
• Sociologists see globalisation as a two-sided process – it opens opportunities but its benefits are unequally shared.

Important terms

• Globalisation – integration of the world through economic, cultural and technological flows.
• Liberalisation – removing government controls on economic activity.
• Privatisation – transfer of activities from the public to the private sector.
• Glocalisation – blending of global and local elements.
• Consumerism – a culture of buying goods as a sign of status and identity.

Important thinkers and theories

• Anthony Giddens – globalisation as worldwide intensification of social relations.
• Roland Robertson – glocalisation.
• George Ritzer – McDonaldization (efficiency, calculability, predictability, control).
• Yogendra Singh – Culture Change in India: Identity and Globalization (2000).

5 important questions

Q1. What does LPG stand for?

Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation – the economic reform policy India adopted in 1991.

Q2. What is glocalisation?

Glocalisation means the mixing of global and local: global companies or ideas adapt to local cultures, e.g. international food chains selling vegetarian or regional items in India.

Q3. Explain the meaning and dimensions of globalisation.

• Definitions (Giddens).
• Economic, technological, cultural, political, social dimensions.
• The 1991 reforms in India.
• Examples from daily life.

Q4. Discuss the impact of globalisation on Indian society.

• Economy and employment (IT, services, informal work).
• Family, marriage and women.
• Culture and values (consumerism, glocalisation).
• Inequality, agriculture and environment.

Q5. "Globalisation is a mixed blessing for India." Discuss.

• Benefits: growth, jobs, technology, awareness.
• Costs: inequality, insecurity, farm distress, cultural loss.
• Role of state policy; conclusion.

Exam tip

Write a balanced answer: a few positive and negative effects, each with an Indian example, and end with a short conclusion – examiners prefer balance over a one-sided view.

Quick summary

A social movement is a collective and organised effort by a large group of people to bring about, or to resist, social change. India has a long history of movements by peasants, Dalits, tribals, women and environmentalists. This topic explains the meaning, features and types of social movements and important examples from India and Maharashtra.

Key points

• Meaning: a social movement is sustained collective action, guided by an ideology and led by an organisation, to change (or protect) some part of society.
• Features: collective action, shared ideology, organisation and leadership, specific goals, continuity over time, use of protest methods (meetings, marches, satyagraha, petitions).
• Stages (Herbert Blumer): social unrest → popular excitement → formalisation → institutionalisation.
• **Types (M. S. A. Rao, Social Movements in India, 1978): reformist (partial change), transformative (change in power structure, e.g. backward-caste movements), revolutionary** (complete change of the system).
• Peasant movements: Champaran Satyagraha (1917, Gandhi), Tebhaga (Bengal, 1946), Telangana (1946–51); Shetkari Sanghatana led by Sharad Joshi in Maharashtra (from 1979–80) for fair prices of crops.
• Dalit movements: Satyashodhak Samaj (Phule, 1873), Dr. Ambedkar's Mahad (1927) and Kalaram temple (1930) satyagrahas, mass conversion to Buddhism (Nagpur, 14 October 1956), Dalit Panthers (Mumbai, 1972) and Dalit literature.
• Tribal movements: Santhal rebellion (1855), Birsa Munda's Ulgulan (1899–1900), Jharkhand movement (state formed in 2000); forest rights struggles.
• Women's movements: social reform era (Savitribai Phule, Pandita Ramabai, Maharshi Karve); post-1970s movements against dowry, rape and domestic violence; the Shahada movement of tribal women in Dhule district (1970s); demand for reservation in local bodies.
• Environmental movements: Chipko (Uttarakhand, 1973 – hugging trees), Silent Valley (Kerala), Narmada Bachao Andolan (from 1985, Medha Patkar) against displacement by dams; Appiko (Karnataka).
• New social movements – after the 1970s, focused on identity, environment, gender and human rights rather than class alone.
• Role of movements: they voice the problems of marginal groups, create awareness, push for new laws (e.g. Forest Rights Act 2006, domestic violence law 2005) and deepen democracy.

Important terms

• Social movement – organised collective effort for or against social change.
• Ideology – set of ideas that guides a movement.
• Reformist movement – seeks partial change within the existing system.
• Revolutionary movement – seeks total change of the social order.
• New social movements – movements based on identity, environment, gender, rights.

Important thinkers and theories

• M. S. A. Rao – classification of movements; relative deprivation as a cause.
• Ghanshyam Shah – Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature (1990).
• Herbert Blumer – stages of social movements.
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Sharad Joshi, Medha Patkar – leaders of major movements.

5 important questions

Q1. Define social movement.

A social movement is an organised and continuing collective effort by a group of people, guided by an ideology and leadership, to bring about or resist social change.

Q2. What is the Chipko movement?

An environmental movement that began in 1973 in the Garhwal Himalaya (now Uttarakhand), where villagers, especially women, hugged trees to stop commercial felling; Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt were its leading figures.

Q3. Explain the meaning, features and types of social movements.

• Definition and elements.
• Features: collective action, ideology, organisation, goals.
• Types: reformist, transformative, revolutionary (M. S. A. Rao).
• Stages (Blumer).

Q4. Discuss the Dalit movement in Maharashtra.

• Phule and Satyashodhak Samaj.
• Ambedkar: Mahad, Kalaram, political parties, Buddhist conversion (1956).
• Dalit Panthers and Dalit literature.
• Achievements and present issues.

Q5. Write a note on peasant and environmental movements in India.

• Peasant: Champaran, Tebhaga, Telangana, Shetkari Sanghatana.
• Environmental: Chipko, Silent Valley, Narmada Bachao Andolan.
• Common issues: livelihood, land, displacement, justice.

Exam tip

For every type of movement, give one national and one Maharashtra example with a year. Dates such as 1873, 1927, 1956, 1972 and 1985 make your answer look strong.

Quick summary

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890) and Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar (1891–1956) were great social reformers from Maharashtra who fought against caste discrimination and for the rights of the oppressed and of women. Phule started the movement for social equality in the 19th century; Ambedkar carried it forward and gave India its Constitution.

Key points

• Jyotirao Phule was born in 1827 in Maharashtra, in the Mali community, and worked mainly in Pune.
• With his wife Savitribai Phule, he opened a school for girls in Pune in 1848 and later schools for children of lower castes.
• He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj on 24 September 1873 to fight caste inequality, Brahminical domination and superstition, and to promote rational religion and equality.
• Books: Gulamgiri (Slavery, 1873), Shetkaryacha Asud (The Cultivator's Whipcord), Sarvajanik Satyadharma.
• He opened a home to prevent infanticide for widows, supported widow remarriage, and opened his own water tank to untouchables.
• He was given the title "Mahatma" in 1888 in Mumbai.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 at Mhow (Madhya Pradesh) in a Mahar family from Maharashtra (Ambadawe, Ratnagiri).
• He studied at Columbia University and the London School of Economics; he was an economist, lawyer and sociologist.
• He founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924) and newspapers Mooknayak (1920) and Bahishkrit Bharat (1927).
• Mahad Satyagraha (Chavdar Tale, 20 March 1927) for the right to use public water; the Manusmriti was burnt there on 25 December 1927. Kalaram Temple entry satyagraha at Nashik (1930).
• Poona Pact (1932) with Gandhi – reserved seats for depressed classes in place of separate electorates.
• Founded the Independent Labour Party (1936) and the Scheduled Castes Federation (1942).
• He was Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution and India's first Law Minister.
• His books include Annihilation of Caste (1936), Who Were the Shudras? and The Buddha and His Dhamma.
• On 14 October 1956 at Nagpur (Deekshabhoomi) he embraced Buddhism with lakhs of followers. He died on 6 December 1956. He received the Bharat Ratna (posthumously) in 1990.
• His motto: "Educate, Agitate, Organise."

Important terms

• Satyashodhak Samaj – "Truth-seekers' Society" founded by Phule.
• Satyagraha (सत्याग्रह) – non-violent struggle for rights.
• Depressed classes – term used in colonial times for untouchable castes.
• Separate electorate – a system where only members of a group vote for their own representatives.
• Deekshabhoomi – the place in Nagpur where Ambedkar embraced Buddhism.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. When and why was the Satyashodhak Samaj founded?

Jyotirao Phule founded it on 24 September 1873 to free lower castes from Brahminical domination and superstition and to spread equality and education.

Q2. What was the Mahad Satyagraha?

In March 1927 Dr. Ambedkar led thousands of people to drink water from the Chavdar Tale (public tank) at Mahad, asserting the right of untouchables to use public water sources.

Q3. Explain the social contribution of Mahatma Jyotirao Phule.

• Education of girls and lower castes.
• Satyashodhak Samaj.
• Writings: Gulamgiri, Shetkaryacha Asud.
• Work for widows and farmers.
• Opposition to caste and priestly control.

Q4. Explain Dr. Ambedkar's contribution to the upliftment of the depressed classes.

• Organisations and newspapers.
• Mahad and Kalaram satyagrahas.
• Poona Pact.
• Constitutional safeguards: Article 17, reservation.
• Conversion to Buddhism.
• Motto: Educate, Agitate, Organise.

Q5. Compare the ideas of Phule and Ambedkar on caste.

• Both opposed caste hierarchy and Brahminical scriptures.
• Phule stressed education and the Satyashodhak movement.
• Ambedkar used law, politics and the Constitution; finally chose Buddhism.
• Ambedkar called Phule one of his gurus (with Buddha and Kabir).
• Their lasting impact on Maharashtra and India.

Exam tip

Learn the dates in the table; questions on these two reformers are very common in Nagpur university papers, and dates give quick marks.

Quick summary

Savitribai Phule and Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj were two great social reformers of Maharashtra. Savitribai, India's first woman teacher of a girls' school, fought for women's education and against caste and gender injustice. Shahu Maharaj, ruler of Kolhapur, used state power for social justice – reservation, free education and the end of untouchability. This topic explains their life, work and sociological importance.

Key points

• Savitribai Phule was born on 3 January 1831 at Naigaon (Satara district) and married Jyotirao Phule in 1840; Jyotirao taught her to read and write.
• On 1 January 1848 the Phule couple started a school for girls at Bhide Wada, Pune; Savitribai taught there and is regarded as India's first woman teacher of a girls' school. She faced stones and mud thrown by orthodox people but did not stop.
• She opened more schools for girls and for children of lower castes, and with Jyotirao founded the Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (home to prevent infanticide, 1863) for pregnant widows.
• She opposed child marriage and the tonsuring of widows, supported widow remarriage and inter-caste marriage, and worked for the Satyashodhak Samaj, leading it after Jyotirao's death (1890).
• Her poetry collections Kavya Phule (1854) and Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (1892) spread the message of education and equality.
• She died on 10 March 1897 while nursing plague patients in Pune. Her birthday is observed in Maharashtra as Balika Din; Pune University was renamed after her in 2014.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj was born on 26 June 1874 (Kagal), adopted into the Kolhapur royal family, and ruled Kolhapur from 1894 to 1922.
• On 26 July 1902 he reserved 50% of posts in his state's services for backward classes – one of the earliest reservation policies in India.
• He made primary education free and compulsory in Kolhapur (1917) and opened hostels for students of many castes and communities, making Kolhapur a centre of education.
• He opposed untouchability, supported inter-caste marriage and widow remarriage by law, and encouraged the Satyashodhak and non-Brahmin movement (the Vedokta controversy strengthened his stand).
• He supported Dr. B. R. Ambedkar – helped his newspaper Mooknayak and at the Mangaon conference (1920) declared that Ambedkar would be the leader of the depressed classes.
• He was called "Rajarshi" (royal sage); his birthday, 26 June, is observed in Maharashtra as Social Justice Day. He died on 6 May 1922.

Important terms

• Satyashodhak Samaj – "Society of Truth Seekers", founded by Jyotirao Phule in 1873.
• Reservation – setting aside posts or seats for backward groups.
• Non-Brahmin movement – movement against Brahmin dominance in religion, education and jobs.
• Vedokta controversy – dispute over Shahu Maharaj's right to rituals performed with Vedic mantras.
• Social justice – fair treatment and equal opportunity for all sections.

Important thinkers and theories

• Savitribai Phule – women's education, dignity of widows, equality.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj – state-led social justice, reservation, free education.
• Both continued the reform tradition of Mahatma Jyotirao Phule and influenced Dr. Ambedkar.

5 important questions

Q1. When and where did the Phules start their first girls' school?

On 1 January 1848 at Bhide Wada in Pune.

Q2. Why is 26 July 1902 important?

On that day Shahu Maharaj reserved 50% of posts in Kolhapur state services for backward classes, an early example of reservation in India.

Q3. Explain the contribution of Savitribai Phule to women's education and social reform.

• Life and education.
• Girls' schools from 1848; opposition faced.
• Infanticide prevention home, widows, Satyashodhak Samaj.
• Literary work; service during plague; legacy.

Q4. Discuss the social reforms of Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj.

• Reservation (1902).
• Free and compulsory education (1917), hostels.
• Fight against untouchability; laws on inter-caste marriage and widow remarriage.
• Support to Ambedkar; non-Brahmin movement.

Q5. Assess the sociological importance of Savitribai Phule and Shahu Maharaj.

• Education as a tool of mobility.
• Attack on caste and patriarchy.
• Early model of affirmative action.
• Influence on the Constitution and on Maharashtra's social life.

Exam tip

Keep four dates ready: 1848 (girls' school), 1897 (Savitribai's death), 1902 (reservation) and 1917 (free education). Dates with short points score well.