इतिहास History

Quick summary

The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur after he defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. His son Humayun lost the empire to Sher Shah Suri but regained it in 1555. Akbar (1556–1605) truly built and consolidated the empire through conquest, alliances and a policy of religious tolerance.

Key points

• Babur was a descendant of Timur (father's side) and Chengiz Khan (mother's side). He ruled Kabul before coming to India.
• First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi using artillery and the tulughma tactic.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• Battle of Chanderi (1528) against Medini Rai and Battle of Ghaghra (1529) against the Afghans.
• Babur wrote his memoir Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) in Turkish. He died in 1530.
• Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556) was defeated by Sher Khan (Sher Shah) at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj/Bilgram (1540), and lived in exile for about 15 years.
• Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545): great administrator. He introduced the silver rupiya, land measurement and revenue reforms, built roads including the road from Sonargaon to Peshawar (later called the Grand Trunk Road), and sarais.
• Humayun regained Delhi in 1555; he died in 1556 after falling from the stairs of his library.
• Akbar became emperor at age 13 (1556) under the regent Bairam Khan.
• Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar's forces defeated Hemu.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576): Mughal army fought Maharana Pratap of Mewar.
• Akbar's Rajput policy: marriage alliances (e.g. with the Kachhwahas of Amber) and high posts for Rajputs like Raja Man Singh.
• Religious policy: abolished pilgrim tax (1563) and jizya (1564); built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri (1575) for religious debates; issued the Mahzar (1579); started Din-i-Ilahi (1582); policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace with all).
• His court had the Navratnas, including Birbal, Abul Fazl, Todar Mal, Tansen and Raja Man Singh.
• Abul Fazl wrote the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.

Important terms

• Tulughma – flanking battle tactic used by Babur.
• Sulh-i-Kul – Akbar's policy of universal peace.
• Din-i-Ilahi – Akbar's spiritual order.
• Ibadat Khana – house of worship for debates.
• Mahzar – declaration giving Akbar final say in religious disputes.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the importance of the First Battle of Panipat?

In 1526 Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi. It ended the Delhi Sultanate and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India.

Q2. What was Din-i-Ilahi?

It was a spiritual order started by Akbar in 1582, combining good ideas from different faiths. It had very few followers and ended with Akbar.

Q3. Describe the administrative reforms of Sher Shah Suri.

• Centralised administration; provinces divided into sarkars and parganas.
• Land measurement; revenue fixed on produce.
• Patta and qabuliyat between state and farmer.
• Silver rupiya coin.
• Roads, sarais, postal system.
• Strong army and police.

Q4. Explain Akbar's Rajput policy.

• Marriage alliances.
• High mansabs and positions for Rajputs.
• Respect for their autonomy.
• War only with those who resisted (Mewar).
• Results: loyal support; stability of empire.

Q5. Discuss Akbar's religious policy.

• Influences: Sufi ideas, liberal tutors, Rajput wives.
• Abolition of pilgrim tax and jizya.
• Ibadat Khana debates.
• Mahzar (1579).
• Din-i-Ilahi and Sulh-i-Kul.
• Result: unity and stability in a diverse empire.

Exam tip

Use a timeline of battles (1526, 1527, 1539, 1540, 1556, 1576) – dates are scored in short questions.

Quick summary

Sher Shah Sur (Farid), an Afghan, defeated Humayun and ruled north India from 1540 to 1545. In just five years he built a strong, efficient administration – land revenue based on measurement, the silver rupiya, the Grand Trunk Road with sarais, and good policing. Akbar later built on many of his ideas, so he is often called the forerunner of Akbar.

Key points

• Born Farid; he got the title Sher Khan for killing a tiger. He rose in the service of the Afghan rulers of Bihar.
• He defeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj/Bilgram (1540) and became emperor as Sher Shah.
• He conquered Malwa, Raisen, Marwar (battle of Samel, 1544) and died at the siege of Kalinjar (1545) in a gunpowder explosion.
• Administration: the empire was divided into sarkars and parganas. In each sarkar: shiqdar-i-shiqdaran (law and order) and munsif-i-munsifan (justice, revenue disputes). In each pargana: shiqdar, amin (revenue), fotedar (treasurer) and two karkuns (clerks, one writing Persian and one Hindi).
• Land revenue: land was measured; it was classed as good, middling or bad; the state took one-third of the average produce, payable in cash or kind.
• Farmers got a patta (title deed stating their dues) and gave a qabuliyat (acceptance). Officials were told to be lenient in collection and to help in famines.
• Raja Todar Mal worked under him and later shaped Akbar's revenue system.
• Currency: the silver rupiya (about 178 grains) and the copper dam – the basis of later Indian currency.
• Roads and sarais: he repaired the road from Sonargaon (Bengal) to Peshawar (later the Grand Trunk Road) and built roads to Agra, Jodhpur and Multan. About 1,700 sarais served travellers and also as postal (dak) stations.
• Police: village headmen (muqaddams) were held responsible for crimes in their area, which made the roads safe.
• Army: a strong standing army; he revived Alauddin's dagh and huliya.
• Buildings: his tomb at Sasaram (Bihar), the Qila-i-Kuhna mosque in the Purana Qila (Delhi) and the Rohtas fort (Pakistan).

Important terms

• Sarkar – a district-level unit.
• Pargana – a group of villages below the sarkar.
• Patta – a document giving the farmer's land and revenue.
• Qabuliyat – the farmer's written acceptance of the patta.
• Sarai – a rest house for travellers.

Important dates and people

• 1539 – Battle of Chausa.
• 1540 – Battle of Kannauj; Sher Shah emperor.
• 1545 – death at Kalinjar.
• 1555 – Humayun regains Delhi from Sher Shah's successors.

5 important questions

Q1. What is a patta?

A document given to the farmer showing his land, its area and the revenue he had to pay.

Q2. Which battle made Sher Shah emperor?

The Battle of Kannauj (Bilgram) in 1540, where he defeated Humayun.

Q3. Describe the land revenue system of Sher Shah.

• Measurement and classification.
• One-third share; cash or kind.
• Patta and qabuliyat.
• Welfare of farmers; Todar Mal.

Q4. Explain the administrative reforms of Sher Shah.

• Central, sarkar and pargana administration.
• Revenue, currency, roads.
• Police and justice; army.

Q5. "Sher Shah was the forerunner of Akbar." Discuss.

• Revenue ideas continued by Todar Mal.
• Currency and roads.
• Strong central rule and tolerance.
• Limits: short reign.

Exam tip

Name the officers in the sarkar and pargana correctly; they are favourite short-answer questions.

Quick summary

Akbar (1556–1605) made the Mughal Empire stable by winning the loyalty of the Rajputs and by following a policy of religious tolerance called sulh-i-kul (peace with all). Through marriages, high ranks and respect for their autonomy, most Rajput rulers became pillars of the empire. His religious ideas grew from discussions in the Ibadat Khana and led to the Mahzar and the Din-i-Ilahi.

Key points

• Akbar won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu; Bairam Khan was regent until 1560.
• Rajput policy: in 1562 Akbar married the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber (Kachhwaha). Bharmal's son Bhagwant Das and grandson Man Singh became top Mughal commanders.
• Rajput rulers who accepted Mughal overlordship kept their kingdoms as watan jagirs and received high mansabs.
• Those who resisted were defeated: Chittor fell after a long siege (1567–68), then Ranthambhor and Kalinjar (1569).
• Maharana Pratap of Mewar refused to submit. At the Battle of Haldighati (1576) the Mughal army, led by Man Singh, won, but Pratap continued guerrilla resistance and recovered much of Mewar.
• Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax (1563) and jizya (1564), which pleased his Hindu subjects.
• Influences on his religious ideas: Sufi and Bhakti saints, his tutor Abdul Latif, Shaikh Mubarak and his sons Faizi and Abul Fazl, and his Rajput wives.
• Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) built at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575; from 1578 opened to Hindus, Jains, Parsis, Christians (Jesuits from Goa) and others.
• Mahzar (1579): a declaration that gave Akbar the final say in religious disputes among Muslim scholars.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582), also called Tauhid-i-Ilahi: a spiritual order of his followers based on loyalty, ethics and tolerance; it had very few members (Birbal was one) and ended with Akbar.
• Sanskrit works were translated into Persian, e.g. the Mahabharata as Razmnama.
• Badauni criticised his religious policy; Abul Fazl praised it.

Important terms

• Sulh-i-kul – universal peace; tolerance towards all religions.
• Watan jagir – a Rajput ruler's home territory left to him as a jagir.
• Ibadat Khana – hall for religious debates at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Mahzar – 1579 declaration on Akbar's religious authority.
• Din-i-Ilahi – Akbar's spiritual order.

Important dates and people

• 1556 – Second Battle of Panipat.
• 1562 – marriage with Amber princess.
• 1563, 1564 – pilgrim tax and jizya abolished.
• 1575 – Ibadat Khana; 1576 – Haldighati.
• 1579 – Mahzar; 1582 – Din-i-Ilahi.

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Ibadat Khana?

A hall built by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 for religious discussions, later open to scholars of all faiths.

Q2. When was the Battle of Haldighati fought?

In 1576, between Maharana Pratap of Mewar and the Mughal army led by Man Singh.

Q3. Explain Akbar's Rajput policy.

• Aims: stability, loyal allies.
• Marriages, mansabs, watan jagirs.
• Wars with those who resisted; Mewar.
• Results.

Q4. Trace the evolution of Akbar's religious policy.

• Influences.
• Abolition of taxes.
• Ibadat Khana, Mahzar, Din-i-Ilahi.
• Sulh-i-kul.

Q5. Assess the results of Akbar's religious policy.

• Unity and loyalty of subjects.
• Cultural synthesis and translations.
• Opposition of orthodox groups.
• Long-term effects under his successors.

Exam tip

Use the date chain 1562 – 1563 – 1564 – 1575 – 1579 – 1582. It turns a long answer into a clear story.

Quick summary

The Mughal administration was highly centralised, with the emperor at the top. It was organised mostly by Akbar. Its two famous institutions were the mansabdari system (ranking of officers) and the land revenue system of Raja Todar Mal, known as zabti or dahsala. The empire was divided into subas, sarkars and parganas.

Key points

• Emperor (Badshah): supreme head – executive, military, legislative and judicial authority.
• Central ministers:

1. Vakil – prime minister (powerful under Bairam Khan; later reduced).
2. Wazir / Diwan – head of revenue and finance.
3. Mir Bakhshi – head of the military department and the mansabdari system.
4. Mir Saman – in charge of royal household and workshops (karkhanas).
5. Sadr-us-Sudur – religious matters and charitable grants.
6. Qazi-ul-Quzat – chief judge.

• Provinces (subas): Akbar had 12 subas at first, later 15. Each suba had a subedar (governor), diwan, bakhshi, sadr, qazi and waqia-navis (news writer).
• Suba → sarkar (under faujdar) → pargana (under shiqdar, amil) → village (under muqaddam and patwari).
• Kotwal – police officer of a town.
• Mansabdari system (introduced by Akbar, around 1570s): every officer held a rank (mansab). Zat = personal rank and salary; Sawar = number of horsemen he had to maintain.
• Mansabs ranged from 10 to 5000 for nobles (higher for princes).
• Mansabdars were paid in cash or by jagirs (revenue assignments). Jagirs were transferable, not hereditary.
• Dagh (branding horses) and chehra (descriptive roll) were used to check fraud.
• Land revenue: Zabti system: land measured, average produce of 10 years (dahsala, 1580) worked out, state share about one-third, paid in cash.
• Land classified by cultivation: polaj (cultivated every year), parauti (left fallow for a short time), chachar (fallow 3–4 years), banjar (fallow 5 years or more).
• Other systems: batai (crop sharing) and kankut (estimating crop).
• Revenue officials: amalguzar, karori, qanungo, patwari.
• Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan the system continued; under Aurangzeb, the jagirdari crisis (shortage of good jagirs) developed.

Important terms

• Mansab – rank of an officer.
• Zat / Sawar – personal rank / cavalry rank.
• Jagir – revenue assignment in place of salary.
• Zabti – system of measurement-based revenue.
• Dahsala – ten-year average revenue system.
• Khalisa – land whose revenue went directly to the royal treasury.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by zat and sawar?

In the mansabdari system, zat was the personal rank of an officer and fixed his salary and status. Sawar was the number of cavalrymen he had to maintain.

Q2. Who was Raja Todar Mal?

He was Akbar's finance minister and one of his Navratnas. He developed the zabti and dahsala land revenue system.

Q3. Explain the mansabdari system.

• Introduced by Akbar.
• All officers given ranks (mansabs).
• Zat and sawar ranks.
• Paid in cash or jagirs.
• Appointment, promotion, dismissal by emperor.
• Dagh and chehra to stop fraud.
• Merits: loyal, organised service; demerits: jagir crisis later.

Q4. Describe the land revenue system of Akbar.

• Land survey and measurement.
• Classification: polaj, parauti, chachar, banjar.
• Dahsala: 10-year average produce.
• State share about one-third, in cash.
• Remission in famine; loans (taccavi).
• Officials: amalguzar, qanungo, patwari.

Q5. Describe the provincial administration of the Mughals.

• Subas under subedar.
• Diwan, bakhshi, sadr, qazi in each suba.
• Sarkars under faujdar.
• Parganas under shiqdar and amil.
• Kotwal in towns; village headman and patwari.
• Waqia-navis sent news to the centre.

Exam tip

Draw a simple hierarchy (Empire → Suba → Sarkar → Pargana → Village) in your answer sheet; it earns presentation marks.

Quick summary

For over a century the Mughals tried to conquer the Deccan – the Sultanates of Khandesh, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda, and later the Marathas. Akbar and Shah Jahan made steady gains; Aurangzeb spent his last 26 years in the Deccan, conquering Bijapur and Golconda but failing to crush the Marathas. Historians see this long war as a major cause of Mughal decline.

Key points

• Motives: imperial ambition, the wealth of the Deccan (diamonds of Golconda, ports), control of the Portuguese, and later the rise of Maratha power.
• Akbar: took Khandesh (fort of Asirgarh, 1601), Berar (1596) and Ahmadnagar (1600) despite the brave defence of Chand Bibi.
• Jahangir: the Abyssinian minister Malik Ambar revived Ahmadnagar, used Maratha soldiers and guerrilla warfare, and reformed revenue; the Mughals made little progress.
• Shah Jahan: ended the Nizam Shahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar in 1633–36 (Shahaji Bhosale's attempt to save it failed). In 1636 Bijapur and Golconda signed treaties accepting Mughal overlordship.
• Prince Aurangzeb served as viceroy of the Deccan (1636–44 and 1653–57) and organised the four Mughal Deccan provinces.
• Against Shivaji: Shaista Khan was attacked at Lal Mahal, Pune (1663); Mirza Raja Jai Singh forced the Treaty of Purandar (1665); Shivaji escaped from Agra (1666) and recovered his forts.
• Aurangzeb in the Deccan (1681–1707): he came south chasing his rebel son Prince Akbar, who had joined Sambhaji.
• He conquered Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) and captured and executed Sambhaji (1689).
• But Maratha resistance under Rajaram and Tararani spread across the Deccan, and the war dragged on.
• Aurangzeb died at Ahmadnagar in 1707 and was buried at Khuldabad near Aurangabad.
• Effects: drained treasury and army; north India neglected; shortage of jagirs (jagirdari crisis); nobles grew unhappy; the Marathas grew stronger. The phrase "the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb" sums up this view.

Important terms

• Deccan Sultanates – Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Berar and Bidar, which arose from the Bahmani kingdom.
• Subah – a Mughal province.
• Jagirdari crisis – too many nobles and too few good jagirs.
• Deed of submission – treaty accepting Mughal overlordship (1636).

Important dates and people

• 1600 – Ahmadnagar falls; 1601 – Asirgarh.
• 1636 – treaties with Bijapur and Golconda.
• 1665 – Treaty of Purandar.
• 1686, 1687 – Bijapur and Golconda conquered.
• 1707 – death of Aurangzeb.

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Malik Ambar?

The Abyssinian (Habshi) minister of Ahmadnagar who resisted the Mughals in Jahangir's time using Maratha soldiers and guerrilla tactics, and reformed land revenue.

Q2. When did Aurangzeb conquer Golconda?

In 1687.

Q3. Describe the Deccan policy of Akbar and Shah Jahan.

• Motives.
• Akbar: Khandesh, Berar, Ahmadnagar.
• Shah Jahan: end of Ahmadnagar, 1636 treaties.
• Aurangzeb as viceroy.

Q4. Explain the Deccan policy of Aurangzeb.

• Shivaji and Purandar.
• Coming to the Deccan in 1681.
• Bijapur, Golconda, Sambhaji.
• Maratha War of Independence.

Q5. "The Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb." Discuss.

• Financial and military drain.
• Neglect of the north; revolts.
• Jagirdari crisis.
• Rise of the Marathas.
• Balanced conclusion.

Exam tip

Divide the answer reign by reign: Akbar → Jahangir → Shah Jahan → Aurangzeb, with one key event and date for each.

Quick summary

The Mughal period was a golden age of Indian art. Mughal architecture blended Persian, Central Asian and Indian styles, reaching its peak in the Taj Mahal. Painting grew in the imperial workshops of Akbar and Jahangir; music flourished with Tansen; and literature in Persian, Hindi and regional languages, together with translations, created a shared Indo-Persian culture.

Key points

• Architecture – features: charbagh (four-part) gardens, double domes, red sandstone and white marble, inlay work (pietra dura), large gateways and symmetry.
• Humayun's tomb (Delhi, completed c. 1571, built by his widow Haji Begum) – the first great garden tomb.
• Akbar: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri with the Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Panch Mahal and the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti; his own tomb at Sikandra.
• Jahangir and Nur Jahan: Itimad-ud-Daulah's tomb at Agra, an early example of pietra dura; gardens like Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir.
• Shah Jahan: Taj Mahal (built c. 1632–1653, architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori), the Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi, Moti Masjid at Agra.
• Aurangzeb: Badshahi Mosque (Lahore); Bibi ka Maqbara at Aurangabad (Maharashtra), built by his son Azam Shah in memory of his mother.
• Painting: Humayun brought Persian masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-us-Samad. Akbar's workshop produced the Hamzanama; Indian artists Daswanth and Basawan excelled.
• Under Jahangir painting reached its peak – portraits and nature studies by Mansur (birds and animals), Abul Hasan and Bishandas. It declined under Aurangzeb, and artists moved to Rajput (Rajasthani, Pahari) and Deccani courts.
• Music: Tansen at Akbar's court; Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Aurangzeb stopped court music, but music continued among nobles and books on music were still written.
• Literature: Persian – Abul Fazl, Faizi; translations of the Mahabharata, Ramayana and Upanishads (Dara Shikoh's Sirr-i-Akbar). Hindi – Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. Marathi – saints Eknath, Tukaram and Ramdas.

Important terms

• Charbagh – a garden divided into four parts by water channels.
• Pietra dura – inlay of coloured stones in marble.
• Karkhana – royal workshop.
• Miniature – small, detailed painting, usually in manuscripts or albums.
• Buland Darwaza – the great gate at Fatehpur Sikri.

Important dates and people

• c. 1571 – Humayun's tomb completed.
• c. 1571–1585 – Fatehpur Sikri as capital.
• c. 1632–1653 – Taj Mahal.
• 1657 – Dara Shikoh's translation of the Upanishads.
• Mansur – Jahangir's painter of birds and animals.

5 important questions

Q1. What is pietra dura?

Decoration made by inlaying coloured stones into marble, seen in Itimad-ud-Daulah's tomb and the Taj Mahal.

Q2. Who built Bibi ka Maqbara?

Azam Shah, son of Aurangzeb, at Aurangabad, in memory of his mother Dilras Banu Begum.

Q3. Describe the main features of Mughal architecture with examples.

• Features listed above.
• Humayun's tomb, Fatehpur Sikri.
• Taj Mahal, Red Fort.
• Influence on later buildings.

Q4. Write a note on the development of Mughal painting.

• Persian beginnings under Humayun.
• Akbar's workshop, Hamzanama.
• Jahangir's golden age.
• Decline and regional schools.

Q5. Explain the growth of literature in the Mughal period.

• Persian works and translations.
• Hindi poets.
• Marathi saint literature.
• Cultural synthesis.

Exam tip

Link each emperor with one building and one artist. "Akbar – Fatehpur Sikri – Daswanth; Jahangir – Itimad-ud-Daulah – Mansur; Shah Jahan – Taj Mahal" is an easy memory chain.

Quick summary

Mughal India was one of the richest economies of the world. Most people were peasants, and land revenue supported the state and the nobility. Crafts, especially cotton textiles, were famous worldwide, and trade flowed through ports like Surat. Society was hierarchical, with nobles and zamindars at the top, and women's position varied by class.

Key points

• Social groups: emperor and nobility (mansabdars of Turani, Irani, Afghan, Rajput and Deccani origin), zamindars (local landholders), merchants and bankers, artisans, and the large peasantry.
• Peasants: khud-kasht (resident cultivators) and pahi-kasht (outsiders cultivating land in other villages). The village community and headman managed local affairs.
• Women: purdah among the upper classes; child marriage and sati existed (Akbar tried to discourage forced sati). Royal women such as Nur Jahan, Jahanara and Gulbadan Begum were influential; peasant women worked in fields and crafts.
• Agriculture: wheat, rice, millets and pulses; cash crops – cotton, indigo, sugarcane, opium; new crops from the Americas such as tobacco and maize came via the Portuguese.
• Revenue: Todar Mal's zabt/dahsala system (from 1580) fixed cash rates based on the average of ten years' produce.
• Industries: cotton and silk textiles (Bengal muslin, Gujarat calico), indigo, saltpetre, metal work, shipbuilding; royal karkhanas made luxury goods.
• Trade: internal trade by roads and rivers, carried by banjaras; overseas trade to West Asia, Southeast Asia and Europe.
• Ports: Surat (chief Mughal port), Cambay, Masulipatnam, Hooghly. Exports: textiles, indigo, spices, saltpetre. Imports: gold and silver, horses, luxury goods.
• Banking: sarrafs (money-changers) and hundis (bills of exchange). Rich merchants like Virji Vora of Surat.
• Currency: the silver rupiya, copper dam and gold mohur.
• European companies: the English got permission to set up a factory at Surat (1613); Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir's court (1615–19). Dutch, French and Portuguese also traded.
• Big cities: Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Surat, Burhanpur, Dhaka. Travellers like Bernier and Tavernier describe their wealth and the poverty of ordinary people.

Important terms

• Zamindar – a local landholder with rights to collect revenue.
• Zabt – revenue system based on measurement and cash rates.
• Hundi – a bill of exchange used to transfer money.
• Banjara – travelling trader carrying goods on oxen.
• Factory – a trading post of a European company.

Important dates and people

• 1580 – dahsala system.
• 1613 – English factory at Surat.
• 1615–1619 – Sir Thomas Roe at Jahangir's court.
• Francois Bernier – French traveller (1656–1668 in India).

5 important questions

Q1. What was a hundi?

A written order (bill of exchange) used by merchants to pay or transfer money from one place to another without carrying cash.

Q2. Which was the main port of the Mughal Empire?

Surat in Gujarat.

Q3. Describe the social structure of Mughal India.

• Nobility and zamindars.
• Merchants and artisans.
• Peasants and village life.
• Position of women.

Q4. Explain the agricultural and industrial economy of the Mughal period.

• Crops and new crops.
• Revenue system.
• Textiles and other industries.
• Karkhanas.

Q5. Write a note on trade and commerce in Mughal India.

• Internal trade and banjaras.
• Ports, exports and imports.
• Banking, hundi, currency.
• European companies.

Exam tip

Mention Surat, hundi, Bengal muslin and the 1613 English factory in any trade answer; these details show real knowledge.

Quick summary

In the 17th century, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj founded an independent Maratha state (Swarajya) in Maharashtra, challenging the Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur and the mighty Mughal Empire. He built forts, a navy and a disciplined army, and was crowned at Raigad in 1674. His work created a new political power that later spread over much of India.

Key points

• Background of the rise: geography of the Sahyadri (hills, forts, valleys) good for guerrilla war; unity created by the Bhakti saints; experience of Maratha sardars in Deccan Sultanates; weakening of Deccan Sultanates.
• Shivaji Maharaj was born on 19 February 1630 (per the date adopted by the Maharashtra government) at Shivneri fort near Junnar. Parents: Shahaji Raje Bhosale and Jijabai.
• Jijabai and Dadoji Konddev guided his early life in the Pune jagir.
• He captured forts like Torna (about 1646), then Rajgad, Kondhana and Purandar, laying the foundation of Swarajya.
• Afzal Khan episode (1659): the Bijapur general was killed at Pratapgad.
• Siege of Panhala and Pavan Khind (1660): Baji Prabhu Deshpande held the pass so Shivaji could reach Vishalgad.
• Shaista Khan, the Mughal general, was attacked in Lal Mahal, Pune (1663).
• Raid on Surat (1664), a rich Mughal port.
• Treaty of Purandar (1665) with Mughal general Mirza Raja Jai Singh: Shivaji gave up 23 forts.
• Agra visit and escape (1666) from Aurangzeb's house arrest.
• He won back forts (Sinhagad by Tanaji Malusare, 1670) and raided Surat again (1670).
• Coronation (Rajyabhishek) at Raigad on 6 June 1674; took the title Chhatrapati; started the Rajyabhishek Shaka.
• Karnataka (southern) campaign (1677–78): won Jinji and Vellore.
• He built a navy and sea forts such as Sindhudurg and Vijaydurg (strengthened), to face the Siddis, Portuguese and English.
• He died at Raigad on 3 April 1680.
• After him: Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj (executed by Aurangzeb, 1689), Rajaram (moved to Jinji), and Maharani Tarabai continued the struggle until Aurangzeb's death in 1707.

Important terms

• Swarajya – self-rule; independent state of the Marathas.
• Chhatrapati – sovereign title taken in 1674.
• Ganimi kava – guerrilla warfare tactics.
• Mavalas – soldiers from the Maval region of the Sahyadri.
• Jaldurg – sea fort.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Treaty of Purandar?

It was signed in 1665 between Shivaji Maharaj and Mirza Raja Jai Singh. Shivaji gave 23 forts to the Mughals and agreed to visit the Mughal court; he kept 12 forts.

Q2. Why was Shivaji Maharaj's coronation important?

The 1674 coronation made him a sovereign ruler (Chhatrapati). It gave legal and moral status to Swarajya and inspired the people.

Q3. Explain the factors that helped the rise of Maratha power.

• Geography of the Sahyadri and forts.
• Bhakti movement created unity.
• Experience of Marathas in Deccan Sultanates.
• Decline of Bijapur and Golconda.
• Leadership of Shivaji Maharaj and Jijabai's inspiration.
• Guerrilla warfare.

Q4. Describe Shivaji Maharaj's relations with the Mughals.

• Early raids on Mughal territory.
• Shaista Khan attacked (1663).
• Surat raid (1664).
• Treaty of Purandar (1665).
• Agra visit and escape (1666).
• Recovery of forts and second Surat raid (1670).

Q5. Assess Shivaji Maharaj as a founder of Swarajya.

• Built a state out of jagirs.
• Military genius; forts and navy.
• Good administration; Ashtapradhan.
• Religious tolerance; respect for women.
• Welfare of ryots (farmers).
• Inspired later Maratha expansion.

Exam tip

Always write events in chronological order with years; Shivaji Maharaj questions are commonly asked as "Give an account of…".

Quick summary

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj built a well-organised, people-friendly administration. At the centre was the king with a council of eight ministers, the Ashtapradhan Mandal. He improved land revenue to protect farmers, built a strong army and navy, and gave great importance to forts. In the 18th century, under the Peshwas, Maratha administration expanded and collected chauth and sardeshmukhi from other areas.

Key points

• Chhatrapati: the king was the supreme authority but ruled for the welfare of the people.
• Ashtapradhan Mandal (council of eight ministers):

1. Peshwa (Pantpradhan) – prime minister, general administration.
2. Amatya (Majumdar) – finance and accounts.
3. Sachiv (Surnavis) – royal letters and records.
4. Mantri (Waqia-navis) – king's daily affairs and intelligence.
5. Senapati (Sarnaubat) – commander-in-chief.
6. Sumant (Dabir) – foreign affairs.
7. Nyayadhish – justice.
8. Panditrao (Danadhyaksha) – religious affairs and charity.

• The Senapati was the commander-in-chief; all ministers except the Nyayadhish and Panditrao also commanded troops when needed. Posts were not hereditary under Shivaji Maharaj.
• Provincial units: Swarajya divided into prants, then pargana/tarf and mauje (villages). Village officials: patil, kulkarni.
• Revenue: Shivaji Maharaj stopped the jagir system mostly and paid officers in cash. Land was measured (with a kathi), and the state's share was about two-fifths (40%) of the produce (as per many historians). Help was given to farmers in bad times.
• Chauth: one-fourth of revenue collected from areas outside Swarajya, in return for protection.
• Sardeshmukhi: an extra 10% claimed by the Maratha king as hereditary sardeshmukh.
• Army: cavalry (bargirs given horses by the state, and shiledars who brought their own), infantry of Mavalas, strict discipline, no women or dancers allowed in camp.
• Forts: each fort under a havaldar, sabnis and karkhanis of different castes, as a check on each other.
• Navy: built at Kalyan-Bhiwandi and other ports; sea forts like Sindhudurg.
• Peshwa period: Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb). Huzur Daftar at Pune was the central office. Maratha Confederacy of Shindes, Holkars, Gaikwads, Bhosales of Nagpur.
• The Bhosales of Nagpur ruled the Vidarbha region, including Bhandara.

Important terms

• Ashtapradhan – council of eight ministers.
• Chauth – 25% levy.
• Sardeshmukhi – additional 10% levy.
• Shiledar / Bargir – cavalry with own horse / state horse.
• Huzur Daftar – Peshwa's central secretariat at Pune.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What were chauth and sardeshmukhi?

Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue collected from territories outside Swarajya in return for protection. Sardeshmukhi was an extra one-tenth claimed by the Maratha ruler as hereditary head deshmukh.

Q2. Who was the Peshwa in the Ashtapradhan?

The Peshwa was the prime minister and head of general administration. Later, in the 18th century, the Peshwas became the real rulers of the Maratha state.

Q3. Describe the Ashtapradhan Mandal.

• Eight ministers with clear duties.
• List each with function.
• Appointed and removed by the king.
• Not hereditary under Shivaji Maharaj.
• Helped efficient and responsible government.

Q4. Explain the revenue system of Shivaji Maharaj.

• Land survey and measurement.
• State share fixed on produce.
• Cash or kind collection.
• Officers paid in cash, not jagirs.
• Help to farmers: seeds, loans, remission.
• Chauth and sardeshmukhi from outside areas.

Q5. Write a note on the military organisation of the Marathas.

• Cavalry: bargirs and shiledars.
• Infantry of Mavalas.
• Forts with balanced officers.
• Navy and sea forts.
• Strict discipline; no plunder of farmers' crops.
• Guerrilla tactics.

Exam tip

Learn the eight ministers in order with their Persian/Marathi titles – a direct 4-mark question.

Quick summary

After Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was captured and executed by Aurangzeb in 1689, the Mughals expected Maratha power to collapse. Instead, under Rajaram Maharaj and then Maharani Tararani, the Marathas fought a long people's war for 18 years (1689–1707). Aurangzeb died in the Deccan without winning, and the Maratha state emerged stronger. This struggle is called the Maratha War of Independence.

Key points

• Sambhaji Maharaj (1680–1689) resisted the Mughals, Siddis and Portuguese. He was captured at Sangameshwar (February 1689) and executed at Tulapur near Pune (March 1689).
• Rajaram Maharaj, his younger brother, was crowned at Raigad. As the Mughals besieged Raigad, he escaped and travelled south to Jinji (Gingee) in present Tamil Nadu, which became the Maratha centre.
• Raigad fell (1689); Yesubai and young Shahu were taken prisoner.
• In Maharashtra, Ramchandrapant Amatya (Hukumatpanah) and Shankaraji Narayan Sachiv ran the state and organised forts.
• Generals Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav used fast guerrilla warfare, cut Mughal supplies and won battles such as Dodderi (1695).
• The Mughal general Zulfiqar Khan besieged Jinji for about eight years; it fell in 1698, but Rajaram had already escaped to Maharashtra and made Satara his base.
• Rajaram died at Sinhagad (1700).
• Tararani (Rajaram's widow) put her young son Shivaji II on the throne and led the war with great skill. She appointed commanders, gave them freedom to raid, and carried the war into Malwa, Gujarat and Berar.
• Aurangzeb personally besieged forts – Satara, Parli, Panhala, Sinhagad, Rajgad, Torna – taking each after long effort, but the Marathas soon recaptured many.
• Aurangzeb died at Ahmadnagar in 1707, his army exhausted.
• Shahu was released in 1707, which led to a civil war between Shahu and Tararani (battle of Khed, 1707).
• Significance: it showed that the Maratha state could survive without a king in the capital; ordinary people and local leaders defended Swarajya; Mughal power was drained; it prepared the way for Maratha expansion in the 18th century.

Important terms

• Hukumatpanah – title given to Ramchandrapant Amatya as head of administration in Maharashtra.
• Guerrilla warfare (गनिमी कावा) – surprise attacks by small, fast units.
• Jinji – fort in Tamil Nadu used as Rajaram's capital.
• Swarajya – the self-rule founded by Shivaji Maharaj.

Important dates and people

• 1689 – Sambhaji Maharaj executed; Raigad falls; Rajaram goes to Jinji.
• 1695 – Battle of Dodderi.
• 1698 – fall of Jinji.
• 1700 – death of Rajaram; Tararani takes charge.
• 1707 – death of Aurangzeb; Shahu released.

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Ramchandrapant Amatya?

A senior minister who, with the title Hukumatpanah, managed the Maratha state in Maharashtra while Rajaram was at Jinji.

Q2. Why did Rajaram Maharaj go to Jinji?

Because Raigad was besieged; Jinji was far from the Mughal army, so he could keep the Maratha state alive and draw the Mughals south.

Q3. Describe the role of Rajaram Maharaj in the War of Independence.

• Coronation and journey to Jinji.
• Organisation through ministers and generals.
• Siege of Jinji; return to Satara.
• Assessment.

Q4. Assess the contribution of Tararani.

• Leadership after 1700.
• Military strategy and raids into Mughal lands.
• Resistance to Aurangzeb's sieges.
• Later civil war with Shahu.

Q5. Explain the causes of the Marathas' success in the War of Independence.

• Guerrilla warfare and forts.
• Able leaders: Santaji, Dhanaji, ministers, Tararani.
• Support of the people.
• Mughal weaknesses.

Exam tip

Divide the war into three phases: Rajaram at Jinji (1689–98), Rajaram at Satara (1698–1700) and Tararani (1700–1707). Examiners like this clear structure.

Quick summary

After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal Empire declined fast. Weak successors, court factions, the jagirdari crisis, revolts of Marathas, Sikhs, Jats and Rajputs, rise of independent provinces, and invasions of Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali made the emperor powerless. Finally, the British took control, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled after 1857.

Key points

• Aurangzeb (1658–1707) expanded the empire to its largest size, but his long Deccan wars (against Bijapur, Golconda and the Marathas) drained men and money.
• His religious policy, including re-imposing jizya (1679), alienated many Rajputs and other groups (a view held by many historians, though debated).
• Weak successors ("later Mughals"): Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar, Muhammad Shah ("Rangila") etc. Many were puppets.
• Wars of succession: no fixed rule; each death led to civil war.
• Court factions: Irani, Turani and Hindustani groups; the Sayyid brothers ("king-makers") made and unmade emperors (1713–1720).
• Jagirdari crisis: too many mansabdars, not enough good jagirs; revenue fell, nobles fought for land.
• Rise of regional powers: Hyderabad (Nizam-ul-Mulk, 1724), Bengal (Murshid Quli Khan), Awadh (Saadat Khan). They accepted the emperor only in name.
• Revolts: Marathas (strongest; reached Delhi), Sikhs (Banda Bahadur), Jats (Churaman, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur), Satnamis, Rajputs.
• Farrukhsiyar's farman (1717) gave the English East India Company duty-free trade in Bengal.
• Nadir Shah's invasion (1739): Persian ruler defeated Muhammad Shah at Karnal, sacked Delhi and carried away the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor diamond.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghan) invaded several times; defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
• Battle of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764) brought British power. Shah Alam II gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the Company (1765).
• Mahadji Shinde controlled Delhi for some years (from 1771/1784) and protected Shah Alam II.
• In 1803 the British took Delhi; the emperor became a British pensioner. After 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon; the empire formally ended.

Important terms

• Later Mughals – weak emperors after 1707.
• King-makers – the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali.
• Jagirdari crisis – shortage of jagirs for mansabdars.
• Successor states – provinces that became virtually independent.
• Farman – royal order.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who were the Sayyid brothers?

Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan were powerful nobles who controlled the Mughal court from 1713 to 1720. They made and removed emperors, so they were called "king-makers".

Q2. What was the impact of Nadir Shah's invasion?

In 1739 Nadir Shah sacked Delhi, killed many people and took away great wealth including the Peacock Throne. It exposed the weakness of the Mughals.

Q3. Explain the causes of the decline of the Mughal Empire.

• Aurangzeb's Deccan wars and policies.
• Weak successors and wars of succession.
• Court factions.
• Jagirdari and financial crisis.
• Rise of regional states and Maratha power.
• Foreign invasions; British rise.

Q4. How did the Marathas contribute to the decline of the Mughals?

• Long war of independence (1681–1707) drained Mughal resources.
• Chauth and sardeshmukhi in Mughal lands (1719 sanads).
• Bajirao I's raids up to Delhi (1737).
• Control of Malwa, Gujarat.
• Mahadji Shinde controlled the emperor.

Q5. Write a note on the rise of regional states in the 18th century.

• Hyderabad – Nizam-ul-Mulk.
• Bengal – Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan.
• Awadh – Saadat Khan.
• Accepted Mughal emperor in name only.
• Independent administration, revenue.
• Later weakened by the British.

Exam tip

Group causes under headings (political, economic, military, foreign) – examiners prefer organised answers to a long list.