इतिहास व नागरिकशास्त्र History and Civics

Quick summary

In Class 7 we study the medieval period of Indian history – roughly from the 9th century CE to the end of the 18th century CE. History must be based on reliable evidence called sources. This chapter explains material, written and oral sources and why every source must be checked carefully.

Key points

• History is a chronological, scientific and systematic account of past events.
• Four important factors in history: individuals, society, place and time.
• Material sources (भौतिक साधने): forts (hill, forest, sea, plains forts), monuments (samadhis, graves, veergals), buildings (palaces, queen's quarters, houses), coins, inscriptions, copper plates, caves, sculptures, temples, mosques, churches, weapons, utensils, ornaments, toys.
• Coins tell us about rulers, their period, religion, economy and metallurgy. Ram–Sita on Akbar's coins and Shiva–Parvati on Hyder Ali's coins show religious harmony; Peshwas used Arabic/Persian script on coins.
• Inscriptions (carvings on stone or walls) are very reliable – e.g. in the Brihadishwara temple at Tanjavur; inscriptions of Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Chola and Yadav kings. Inscriptions on copper sheets are copper plates.
• Written sources: manuscripts, bhurjapatras, treatises, edicts, court records, letters, genealogies, biographies, travelogues, tavarikhs and bakhars.
• Foreign travellers' accounts: Al Biruni, Ibn Batuta, Niccolao Manucci. Biographies: Babur's autobiography; 'Shrishivbharat' by poet Paramanand (Sanskrit biography of Shivaji Maharaj).
• Tavarikh / Tarikh means a sequence of events (e.g. by Al Biruni, Ziauddin Barani).
• Bakhar is a type of chronicle that originated in Maharashtra – Mahikavatichi Bakhar, Sabhasad Bakhar, Chitnisachi Bakhar, Bhausahebachi Bakhar. Many were written long after the events, so some rely on hearsay.
• Oral sources: owis, folk songs, powadas, folk tales, legends, myths, abhangas, proverbs. E.g. Tulshidas Shahir's powada on Tanaji's Kondhana campaign.
• Sources must be evaluated: check if genuine or fake, the writer's interests and impartiality, eyewitness or hearsay, exaggerations, and compare with other contemporary sources.

Important terms

• Source of history – authentic evidence about the past.
• Copper plate – inscription carved on a copper sheet (royal orders, grants).
• Bakhar – Marathi historical chronicle.
• Powada – heroic ballad sung about brave deeds.
• Travelogue – account written by a traveller.

Important dates and people

• Medieval period: 9th century CE – end of 18th century CE
• Paramanand – Shrishivbharat
• Al Biruni, Ibn Batuta, Manucci – foreign travellers
• Robert Orme, M. C. Sprengel, Grant Duff – western historians

5 important questions

Q1. What are material sources of history?

Physical remains of the past such as forts, monuments, buildings, coins, inscriptions, copper plates, caves, sculptures, weapons and ornaments. They tell us about architecture, art, economy and the standard of living.

Q2. Why is a stone inscription considered an authentic source?

It is carved at the time of the event, cannot be changed easily and lasts long. It also tells us about the language, script and social life of that time.

Q3. What is a tarikh? What is a bakhar?

A tarikh (tavarikh) is a written account of events in sequence. A bakhar is a type of chronicle that began in Maharashtra, such as the Sabhasad Bakhar.

Q4. Oral sources reveal various aspects of people's lives. Explain.

Folk songs, owis, powadas and folk tales are passed from generation to generation. They show the beliefs, customs, festivals, bravery and daily life of common people.

Q5. Is it necessary to evaluate sources of history? Why?

Yes. Sources may be fake, one-sided, exaggerated or based on hearsay. So we must check their authenticity, the writer's neutrality and compare them with other sources before using them.

Exam tip

Learn one example each of material, written and oral sources – "find the odd man out" questions are based on these.

Quick summary

Before Shivaji Maharaj, many powers ruled different parts of India – Rajput, Chola, Rashtrakuta, Yadava and other dynasties, then invaders from the north-west, the Delhi Sultanate, the Vijaynagar and Bahamani kingdoms, and finally the Mughals. This chapter traces these powers and the people who resisted the Mughals.

Key points

• Pala dynasty in Bengal; Gurjar-Pratihars in Central India; Rajput dynasties – Gahadwal, Parmar, Chauhan.
• Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghuri in the first battle of Tarain but lost the second.
• Cholas Rajaraj I and Rajendra I used naval power to conquer the Maldives and Sri Lanka.
• Rashtrakutas (Govind III, Krishna III) and three Shilahar dynasties ruled in Maharashtra.
• Yadavas of Deogiri were the last prosperous power before Shivaji Maharaj; their period is the golden age of Marathi literature; the Mahanubhav Panth and Varkari movement began then.
• Arab general Muhammad-bin-Qasim conquered Sindh (8th century), defeating King Dahir. Mahmud of Ghazni plundered temples like Somnath. Bakhtiyar Khalji burnt the Nalanda library.
• Delhi Sultanate: after Ghuri died (1206), Qutubuddin Aibak ruled Delhi; later Sultans include Iltutmish, Razia, Balban, Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad-bin-Tughluq; last Sultan Ibrahim Lodi.
• Vijaynagar founded in 1336 by Harihar and Bukka; capital Hampi. Krishnadevaraya (from 1509) wrote 'Amuktamalyada'; defeated at Talikot in 1565.
• Bahamani kingdom founded in 1347 by Hasan Gangu; capital Gulbarga. Wazir Mahmud Gawan paid soldiers in cash, reformed land revenue, opened a madarsa at Bidar. It broke into five: Imadshahi (Varhad), Baridshahi (Bidar), Adilshahi (Bijapur), Nizamshahi (Ahmadnagar), Qutubshahi (Golconda).
• Babur used artillery to defeat Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat (21 April 1526) and Rana Sanga at Khanua – the Mughal empire began.
• Mughal emperors: Babur, Humayun (defeated by Shershah), Akbar (1556–1605), Jahangir, Shahajahan, Aurangzeb (1658–1707).
• Resisted Akbar: Maharana Pratap (Mewad), Chandbibi (Ahmadnagar, 1595), Rani Durgavati (Gondvana). Akbar's religious policy was tolerant (Din-i-Ilahi).
• Against Aurangzeb: Ahoms under Lachit Borphukan (guerrilla war), Sikh Guru Teghbahadur (beheaded 1675), Guru Gobindsingh (Khalsa Dal, died at Nanded 1708), Durgadas Rathod of Marwad, and the Marathas.

Important terms

• Sultanate – rule of the Sultans of Delhi.
• Artillery – large guns/cannons used in war.
• Khalsa Dal – Sikh fighting force organised by Guru Gobindsingh.
• Guerrilla warfare – surprise attacks by small groups using knowledge of the land.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. How did the Vijaynagar and Bahamani kingdoms emerge?

During Muhammad-bin-Tughluq's reign there were revolts in the south. Harihar and Bukka founded Vijaynagar in 1336, and Hasan Gangu, leader of rebel Sardars, founded the Bahamani kingdom in 1347.

Q2. What reforms did Mahmud Gawan make?

He paid soldiers in cash instead of land grants, brought discipline into the army, reformed land revenue and opened a madarsa at Bidar for Arabic and Persian studies.

Q3. Why did the Bahamani kingdom break into five parts?

After Mahmud Gawan's death, groupism among Sardars increased, wars with Vijaynagar weakened it and provincial governors became independent. It split into Imadshahi, Baridshahi, Adilshahi, Nizamshahi and Qutubshahi.

Q4. Why could the Mughals not build a strong base in Assam?

The Ahoms united under Gadadharsinha, and commander Lachit Borphukan fought fiercely using guerrilla tactics.

Q5. Write a note on Krishnadevaraya.

He became king of Vijaynagar in 1509, defeated the united Sultans, and his kingdom stretched from Cuttack to Goa. A scholar, he wrote 'Amuktamalyada' in Telugu; Hazar Ram and Vitthal temples were built in his reign.

Exam tip

Make a timeline of the dates in the table – timeline questions are common.

Quick summary

India has many languages and religions. In the medieval period, the Bhakti movement, the Mahanubhav Panth, Sikhism and the Sufi sect tried to bring people of different castes and religions together. They taught devotion, equality and humanity in the language of common people.

Key points

• The Indian Constitution follows secularism; medieval saints also worked for religious harmony.
• Earlier, rituals and brahmadnyan were emphasised; in the medieval period the simple Bhakti Marg (path of devotion) became popular. It used people's languages, which helped regional languages grow.
• The Bhakti movement began in South India with the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alwars (devotees of Vishnu). 'Harihar' idols showed Vishnu and Shiva as one. Ramanuja strengthened it.
• Sant Ramanand spread it in North India. Sant Kabir rejected pilgrimages, vratas and idol worship; said Truth is God; worked for Hindu–Muslim unity.
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal) – Krishna bhakti; Shankaradeva spread Bhakti in Assam.
• Narsi Mehta – first poet of Gujarati; Mirabai of Mewad – Krishna devotion in Rajasthani and Gujarati; Surdas – 'Sursagar'; Tulsidas – 'Ramcharitmanas'; Raskhan, Sant Sena, Sant Rohidas.
• Mahatma Basaveshwar (Karnataka) – Lingayat thought; opposed caste; dignity of labour – "Kayakave Kailas" (work is worship); 'Anubhava Mantapa'; Vachana literature in Kannada.
• Mahanubhav Panth founded by Chakradhar Swami in the 13th century in Maharashtra; Krishna devotion; used Marathi; spread in Vidarbha and Marathwada; Riddhipur is its important place. Works: 'Leelacharitra' (Mhaimbhat), 'Dhavale' (Mahadamba – first Marathi poetess).
• Guru Nanak founded Sikhism; visited Hindu and Muslim holy places, even Mecca; taught equality. Holy book: Adi Granth / Guru Granth Sahib (includes Namdeo and Kabir). Ten Gurus; after Guru Gobindsingh, the Granth Sahib is the Guru.
• Sufi sect (in Islam): God is love; love for all, meditation, simple living. Saints: Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya. Sufi music enriched Indian music.

Important terms

• Religious synthesis – bringing different religions together in harmony.
• Bhakti – loving devotion to God.
• Secularism – equal respect for all religions by the State.
• Vachana – short devotional sayings in Kannada.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why did the Bhakti movement become popular?

It was simple and open to all men and women of every caste. Saints spoke in the people's own language and taught love of God, equality and humanity, so common people felt close to it.

Q2. Why did Sant Kabir become a renowned saint?

He believed Truth is God, rejected pilgrimages and idol worship, treated all humans as equal, opposed caste and creed differences, and boldly criticised orthodox people of both religions to bring Hindu–Muslim unity.

Q3. What was the impact of Mahatma Basaveshwar's work?

He opposed the caste system, stressed dignity of labour (Kayakave Kailas), encouraged women's participation and spread his ideas in Kannada through Vachanas, which deeply affected society.

Q4. Write about the Mahanubhav Panth.

Founded by Chakradhar Swami in the 13th century, it preached Krishna devotion, accepted all castes, and used Marathi. It spread in Vidarbha and Marathwada; Riddhipur is its centre; 'Leelacharitra' is a major work.

Q5. What are the teachings of Sufi saints?

God is full of love and can be reached through love and devotion; love for all living beings, meditation and simple living. Their teachings promoted Hindu–Muslim unity.

Exam tip

Prepare a chart "saint – region – teaching/work"; matching and "related word" questions come from it.

Quick summary

In the early 17th century, most of Maharashtra was ruled by the Nizamshah and the Adilshah, while the Mughals and European traders were trying to gain power. This chapter explains the village, kasba and pargana system, the great famine of 1630, the work of the Varkari saints and Ramdas Swami, and the dream of freedom.

Key points

• Rulers: Nizamshah (Ahmadnagar), Adilshah (Bijapur); Mughals had entered Khandesh. Siddis from Africa settled on the Konkan coast.
• Europeans – Portuguese (Goa, Vasai), British, Dutch, French – competed for trade; they were called 'Topkar' because of their hats.
• Village (Mauja): headed by the Patil (cultivation, disputes); the Kulkarni kept revenue records. Artisans received baluta (a share of produce) for their services.
• Kasba: a big village, headquarters of a pargana (e.g. Indapur, Wai); had a market (peth) run by the Shete and Mahajan.
• Pargana: a group of villages (Pune pargana – 290 villages, Chakan – 64, Shirwal – 40). Officers: Deshmukh (chief of patils) and Deshpande (chief of kulkarnis). They were the link between people and government.
• Budruk = original village; Khurd = new village with the same name (Vadgaon Budruk, Vadgaon Khurd).
• Vatan (Arabic word): hereditary land on which no revenue was paid.
• Famine of 1630 CE devastated Maharashtra – people, cattle and farming suffered; trade stopped.
• Varkari movement centred at Pandharpur (worship of Vitthal on the Chandrabhaga). Saints came from all strata: Chokhamela, Goroba, Sena, Sawata, Narhari, Shaikh Muhammad, and women saints Muktabai, Janabai, Soyrabai, Kanhopatra, Bahinabai.
• Sant Namdeo – keertans, went to Punjab; his verses are in the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Sant Dnyaneshwar – 'Dnyaneshwari' (Bhavarthadeepika, on the Gita), 'Amrutanubhav', 'Pasayadaan'.
• Sant Eknath – abhangas, gavlanas, bharuds, 'Bhavarth Ramayana'; defended Marathi.
• Sant Tukaram of Dehu – 'Gatha'; threw loan papers in the Indrayani; opposed hypocrisy.
• Ramdas Swami of Jamb – physical fitness, worship of Ram and Hanuman, 'Dasbodh', 'Manache Shlok'; founded the Samarth Sampradaya (centre: Chaphal).
• Shahaji Maharaj is considered the visionary of Swaraj.

Important terms

• Baluta – share of grain given to village artisans.
• Watandar – holder of hereditary rights/land.
• Peth – market next to a kasba.
• Vari – pilgrimage of Varkaris to Pandharpur.

Important dates and people

• 1630 CE – great famine in Maharashtra
• Jijapur – peth at Pashan near Pune set up on Jijabai's order; Shivapur near Khed in Shivaji Maharaj's name
• Saints: Dnyaneshwar, Namdeo, Eknath, Tukaram, Ramdas Swami

5 important questions

Q1. Explain the village, kasba and pargana.

A village (mauja) was headed by the Patil with the Kulkarni keeping records. A kasba was a big village, headquarters of a pargana, with a peth. A pargana was a group of villages run by the Deshmukh and Deshpande.

Q2. Why were droughts a great calamity for the people?

Farming depended on rain. When it failed, crops failed, grain prices rose, cattle had no fodder and water was scarce, so people had to leave their villages. In the 1630 famine whole families died.

Q3. Write about Sant Tukaram's work.

He lived at Dehu. His 'Gatha' is a treasure of Marathi. He threw loan documents into the Indrayani to free poor families, criticised hypocrisy and superstition, and taught that devotion must go with morality.

Q4. What was the work of the saints in Maharashtra?

They taught equality, humanity and unity, explained religion in people's language, removed caste pride, gave courage during invasions and famines, and created self-confidence and social awakening.

Q5. Find out: (a) author of 'Amrutanubhav' (b) saint who composed bharuds (c) saint who stressed physical fitness.

(a) Sant Dnyaneshwar (b) Sant Eknath (c) Ramdas Swami.

Exam tip

Learn one key work and one key teaching for each saint.

Quick summary

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj founded Swaraj (self-rule) by challenging unjust foreign powers. This chapter covers the roles of Shahajiraje and Jijabai, Shivaji Maharaj's companions in Maval, the Rajmudra, early capture of forts, the conquest of Javali, the killing of Afzalkhan and the escape from Panhala.

Key points

• Shivaji Maharaj was born on 19 February 1630 at Shivneri fort near Junnar (Pune district).
• Shahajiraje, his father, was a great Sardar who tried to save the Nizamshahi against the Mughals and Adilshah; Nizamshahi ended in 1636. He then served Adilshah and held the jagir of Pune, Supe, Indapur, Chakan (and Bengaluru). He dreamt of Swaraj – the Swaraj visionary.
• Veermata Jijabai, daughter of Lakhujiraje Jadhav of Sindkhedraja, gave Shivaji values, weapon training and the dream of Swaraj.
• Swaraj work began in the hilly, hard-to-reach Maval region ("Bara Maval"). Companions: Yesaji Kank, Baji Pasalkar, Tanaji Malusare, Kanhoji Jedhe, Jiva Mahala, Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Bapuji Mudgal and others.
• The Rajmudra (Sanskrit seal) says Swaraj will grow like the new moon and stands for the welfare of the people.
• He captured Torana, Murumbdev, Kondhana and Purandar; Murumbdev was renamed Rajgad, the first capital of Swaraj.
• 1656: captured Javali from Chandrarao More; built Pratapgad; then took Kalyan and Bhiwandi and started building a navy.
• Badi Sahiba of Adilshahi sent Afzalkhan. At the meeting at the foot of Pratapgad on 10 November 1659, Afzalkhan tried treachery; Shivaji Maharaj killed him and routed his army, and treated captured soldiers well.
• Then he took Panhala, Vasantgad and Khelna (renamed Vishalgad).
• 1660: Siddi Jauhar besieged Panhala for about five months. Shiva Kashid, who looked like Maharaj, sacrificed himself; Maharaj escaped to Vishalgad. Bajiprabhu Deshpande held back Siddi's army at Ghod pass near Gajapur and died a hero's death.
• With Shaistakhan (Mughal) invading Pune, Maharaj made a treaty with Adilshah and returned Panhala.

Important terms

• Swaraj – self-rule; one's own kingdom.
• Jagir – right to enjoy the revenue of a region instead of a salary.
• Rajmudra – royal seal.
• Maval – hilly valleys of the Sahyadri in the Pune jagir.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why is Shahaji Maharaj called the visionary of Swaraj?

He resisted the Mughals, wanted to end foreign rule and establish Swaraj, arranged excellent education for Shivaji at Bengaluru to make him a king, and sent him to Pune with loyal associates.

Q2. How did Jijabai prepare Shivaji Maharaj?

She gave him a good education, taught him modesty, truthfulness, courage and fearlessness, got him trained in weapons and filled him with the will to win and the dream of Swaraj.

Q3. Why did Shivaji Maharaj start founding Swaraj in Maval?

Maval's hills and valleys were difficult to reach and easy to defend. He used this geography skilfully and won the trust and affection of the local people.

Q4. Why did Shivaji Maharaj pay attention to building a navy?

After capturing Kalyan and Bhiwandi, he came in contact with the Siddi, Portuguese and British on the western coast. To fight these sea powers, a strong navy was necessary.

Q5. How did Shivaji Maharaj escape from Panhalgad?

During talks the siege slackened. Shiva Kashid, dressed like Maharaj, left in a palanquin and was captured, while Maharaj escaped by another route to Vishalgad. Bajiprabhu Deshpande stopped the enemy at Ghod pass and laid down his life.

Exam tip

Memorise the dates in the table and the meaning of the Rajmudra.

Quick summary

To expand Swaraj, Shivaji Maharaj had to face the mighty Mughals. This chapter covers Shaistakhan's invasion and the Lal Mahal raid, the Surat campaign, Jaisingh's invasion and the Treaty of Purandar, the Agra visit and escape, the recapture of forts, the coronation at Raigad and the campaign of the South.

Key points

• Shaistakhan entered Pune province in Feb 1660; Firangoji Narsala defended Chakan fort bravely. Khan camped at Lal Mahal, Pune, for about three years and his troops looted people.
• 5 April 1663: Shivaji Maharaj raided Lal Mahal at night; Shaistakhan lost his fingers and left Pune in shame.
• Surat campaign (1664): Surat was a rich Mughal port and trade centre (British and Dutch factories). Maharaj took great wealth without troubling common people – a blow to Aurangzeb's prestige.
• Aurangzeb sent Mirzaraja Jaisingh with Dilerkhan. During the siege of Purandar, Murarbaji Deshpande died fighting.
• Treaty of Purandar (June 1665): Maharaj gave 23 forts and territory yielding 4 lakh hons to the Mughals and promised help against Adilshahi.
• At Agra Aurangzeb did not honour him and put him under house arrest; Maharaj escaped cleverly and reached Rajgad; Sambhaji Raje was left at Mathura and brought back later. Jijabai and associates ran Swaraj meanwhile.
• He then recaptured Sinhgad, Purandar, Lohagad, Mahuli, Karnala, Rohida etc., attacked Surat again and defeated Daudkhan at Vani-Dindori (Nashik). Moropant Pingale captured Trimbakgad. Sabhasad says he took 27 forts in four months.
• Coronation: 6 June 1674 at Raigad by Gagabhatt (Vedic); a second (Tantric) coronation on 24 September 1674 by Nischalpuri Gosavi. He became Chhatrapati.
• Symbols of sovereignty: Rajyabhisheka Shaka (new era), coins Hon (gold) and Shivrai (copper) with "Shri Raja Shivachhatrapati", and the Rajya-vyavahara-kosha (Sanskrit words for Persian ones).
• Campaign of the South (Oct 1677): treaty of friendship with Qutubshah of Golconda; won Bengaluru, Hoskote, Jinji, Vellore. Jinji later sheltered Rajaram Maharaj.
• Shivaji Maharaj died at Raigad on 3 April 1680, aged 50.

Important terms

• Chhatrapati – sovereign king (title taken at the coronation).
• Hon – gold coin; Shivrai – copper coin.
• Rajya-vyavahara-kosha – dictionary of Sanskrit alternatives for Persian administrative words.
• Treaty – formal agreement between two powers.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why did Shivaji Maharaj sign the Treaty of Purandar?

Jaisingh's huge forces were ravaging Swaraj, Purandar was besieged and Murarbaji had fallen. To save Swaraj from greater loss, Maharaj made a treaty with Jaisingh in June 1665.

Q2. Why did Shivaji Maharaj undertake the Surat campaign?

Shaistakhan had ravaged Swaraj for three years. To make up the loss and teach the Mughals a lesson, Maharaj raided Surat, a rich Mughal port, and took wealth without troubling the common people.

Q3. Why was the coronation necessary?

After 30 years of struggle, Swaraj needed recognition as a sovereign, independent State. A formal coronation gave it that status and made Shivaji Maharaj the Chhatrapati.

Q4. Why did Shivaji Maharaj take an aggressive stand against the Mughals after Agra?

He wanted to recapture the forts and territories given under the Treaty of Purandar, and keep the Mughals unsettled by attacking their Deccan territories.

Q5. Arrange chronologically: coronation, raid on Lal Mahal, escape from Agra, Treaty of Purandar, Shaistakhan's invasion, campaign of the South.

Shaistakhan's invasion → raid on Lal Mahal → Treaty of Purandar → escape from Agra → coronation → campaign of the South.

Exam tip

Chronological-order questions are very common – learn the sequence of events from 1660 to 1680.

Quick summary

After his coronation, Shivaji Maharaj set up an efficient administration for the welfare of the people. This chapter explains the Ashtapradhan Mandal, his policies on agriculture and trade, the intelligence department, the army, forts and the navy.

Key points

• Swaraj included large parts of Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri, Raigad and Thane districts, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Ashtapradhan Mandal (Council of Eight Ministers) was set up at the coronation. Ministers were chosen on merit, paid salaries, and were not given jagirs or vatans. Only Maharaj could appoint or remove them.
• Agriculture policy: Annaji Datto organised land revenue; officers must not collect more than fixed; peasants encouraged to cultivate waste land; remission in revenue during floods, drought or enemy attack; bullocks, ploughs and seeds given to farmers.
• Village was a self-sufficient unit; artisans got baluta (share of produce).
• Trade: the Ajnyapatra calls merchants "the ornaments of the kingdom and the glory of the king". To protect the salt industry of Konkan, Maharaj put heavy duty on salt imported from Portuguese territory.
• Intelligence department headed by Bahirji Naik, who gathered detailed information about Surat before the raid.
• Army: infantry (Havaldar, Jumledar; chief – Sarnobat) and cavalry. Shiledar had his own horse and weapons; Bargir got them from the State. Famous Sarnobats: Netoji Palkar, Prataprao Gujar, Hambirrao Mohite.
• Forts: about 300 forts. Each had a Killedar, Sabnis and Karkhanis (stores, war material). Ajnyapatra: "This kingdom was created by forts alone." Sea forts: Sindhudurg at Malvan (lead poured in foundation), Padmadurg opposite Rajapuri to counter the Siddi.
• Navy: about 400 ships – gurab, galbat, pal; built at Kalyan-Bhiwandi, Vijaydurg and Malvan. Commanders: Mainak Bhandari and Daulatkhan. "One who has a navy controls the sea."
• His main aim was the welfare and freedom of his subjects.

Important terms

• Ashtapradhan – council of eight ministers.
• Remission – reduction or cancellation of tax.
• Shiledar / Bargir – cavalryman with own horse / horse given by the State.
• Ajnyapatra – treatise on Maratha statecraft (written by Ramchandrapant Amatya).

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why did Shivaji Maharaj establish the Council of Eight Ministers?

To run the growing Swaraj smoothly and for people's welfare, the administration was divided into eight departments, each under a capable minister answerable to Maharaj.

Q2. Describe Shivaji Maharaj's policy regarding agriculture.

He fixed fair land revenue, stopped excess collection, encouraged cultivation of waste land, gave remission in bad times, and provided bullocks, ploughs and seeds to farmers.

Q3. Why did Shivaji Maharaj raise a navy?

The Portuguese, the Siddi of Janjira and the British on the west coast obstructed Swaraj. To curb them and protect the coast, a navy was necessary.

Q4. How did Maharaj protect the salt industry of Konkan?

Cheap salt from Portuguese areas was hurting local trade, so he put heavy duty on it. Imported salt became costly and the sale of local salt increased.

Q5. Why were forts important?

From a fort one could watch the surrounding area, shelter people during invasions and store grain, ammunition and soldiers. Swaraj was built on forts.

Exam tip

Learn the Ashtapradhan table – questions ask the post or work of a minister.

Quick summary

Shivaji Maharaj turned Swaraj into Surajya – a kingdom for the welfare of all. This chapter describes his qualities as an ideal ruler: organisational skill, care for the ryot (common people), a disciplined army, religious tolerance, inspiration for freedom, and his lasting influence on the nation.

Key points

• He faced grave dangers – the meeting with Afzalkhan, siege of Panhala, attack on Shaistakhan, escape from Agra – and came out safe.
• Organisational skill: loyal associates risked their lives – Jiva Mahala (killed Bada Sayyad), Shiva Kashid, Bajiprabhu and Murarbaji Deshpande, Tanaji Malusare, Hiroji Farjand and Madari Mehtar (Agra escape). He cared for them, e.g. for the ailing Kanhoji Jedhe.
• Care for the ryot: during Shaistakhan's invasion he ordered the Deshmukh of Rohida valley to shift villagers to safety at once. His 1674 letter to officers forbade soldiers from taking grain, fodder, grass or vegetables from peasants by force.
• Army policy: strict discipline; salaries paid on time in cash, not jagirs; loot deposited with the Government; bravery rewarded; families of dead soldiers supported; wounded and captured enemy soldiers treated well.
• Religious tolerance: Muslims in Swaraj were his own subjects – Siddi Ibrahim, Siddi Hilal, Daulatkhan served him. Historian Khafi Khan wrote that soldiers were ordered not to harm mosques and to hand over the Quran with respect to a Muslim.
• Revolutionary steps: brought converted people back to their original religion; built sea forts and a navy despite opposition to crossing seas.
• Environment and cleanliness: restricted cutting of trees; garbage on forts burnt at a fixed place and vegetables grown on the ash.
• Punished misbehaviour with women severely; respected all sections – farmers, artisans, traders, soldiers.
• Inspiration for freedom: inspired Chhatrasal to create an independent kingdom in Bundelkhand.
• Inspiration in the national movement: Mahatma Phule (powada, 1869), Lokmanya Tilak (Shivajayanti celebrations), Lala Lajpat Rai (book), Subramanya Bharati (Tamil poem), Rabindranath Tagore (poem), Jadunath Sarkar ('Shivaji and His Times'), Nehru – he belonged to the whole nation.

Important terms

• Surajya – good government that works for the welfare of all.
• Ryot – common people, especially peasants.
• Swadharma – one's own original religion.
• Tolerance – respect for other people's religion and beliefs.

Important dates and people

• 1674 CE – Shivaji Maharaj's letter to military officers on discipline
• 1869 CE – Mahatma Phule's powada on Shivaji Maharaj
• Chhatrasal – Bundelkhand; Daulatkhan – naval officer; Khafi Khan – contemporary historian

5 important questions

Q1. What warning did Shivaji Maharaj give to the Deshmukh of Rohida valley?

To visit every village without delay and shift the people to a safe place below the ghats; otherwise if the Mughals captured them, it would be the Deshmukh's fault.

Q2. What warning did he give his soldiers to avoid loss to the ryot?

Soldiers must not take grain, fodder, grass or vegetables from peasants by force; otherwise the people would flee or starve and the soldiers would be worse than the Mughals.

Q3. Explain Shivaji Maharaj's policy regarding the army.

Strict discipline, timely cash salaries instead of jagirs, valuables from campaigns deposited with the State, rewards for bravery, care of families of the dead and of the wounded, and good treatment of captured enemy soldiers.

Q4. How do we know his religious policy was tolerant?

Muslims like Siddi Hilal and Daulatkhan held important posts; he continued facilities to mosques in conquered areas; Khafi Khan wrote that soldiers were told not to harm mosques and to return the Quran respectfully.

Q5. What inspiration can future generations draw from his life?

Love of freedom and country, courage in difficulties, care for common people, justice, equality, respect for all religions, and good, ethical administration.

Exam tip

For "one word" questions, remember: Daulatkhan (navy), Subramanya Bharati (Tamil poet), Chhatrasal (Bundelkhand), Mahatma Phule (powada).

Quick summary

After Shivaji Maharaj's death, Aurangzeb came to the Deccan himself in 1682 to destroy the Maratha State. Under Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj and Maharani Tarabai, the Marathas fought for about 27 years and finally won. This long struggle is called the Maratha War of Independence.

Key points

• 'Maratha' here means Marathi-speaking or Maharashtrian people.
• Sambhaji Maharaj was born on 14 May 1657 at Purandar. French traveller Abbe Carre praised his courage.
• Prince Akbar, Aurangzeb's rebel son, took shelter with Sambhaji Maharaj; Aurangzeb came south in 1682 with a huge army and artillery, and allied with the Siddi and the Portuguese.
• The Mughals could not win Ramsej fort near Nashik for about five years; Aurangzeb threw down his turban and vowed not to wear it until he defeated Sambhaji.
• Campaign against the Siddi (1682): siege of Janjira abandoned when Mughals attacked Swaraj. Against the Portuguese: attacked Revdanda (1683), broke the siege of Fonda, attacked Goa (Yesaji Kank's bravery).
• Aurangzeb ended the Adilshahi and Qutubshahi, became stronger; Senapati Hambirrao Mohite was killed.
• Sambhaji Maharaj gave administrative powers and her own seal to Maharani Yesubai; wrote 'Budhbhushanam' in Sanskrit.
• He was captured at Sangameshwar by Mukarrabkhan and executed on 11 March 1689; the Marathas fought harder after his sacrifice.
• Rajaram Maharaj (born 24 Feb 1670): with Raigad besieged, Yesubai decided he should become Chhatrapati and go to Jinji. He left Raigad on 5 April 1689. Raigad fell (Nov 1689); Yesubai and Shahu were captured.
• Ramchandrapant Amatya, Shankaraji Narayan Sachiv, Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav led the fight in Maharashtra with guerrilla tactics; Santaji and Vithoji Chavan cut the golden pinnacle of the Emperor's tent.
• Jinji held out for about eight years. Rajaram Maharaj died at Sinhgad on 2 March 1700; G. S. Sardesai called him 'Sthirbuddhi' (level-headed).
• Maharani Tarabai led for seven years; Marathas raided Malwa, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh; her clever fort strategy is called the 'safe deposit locker system'. Khafi Khan praised her.
• Aurangzeb died at Ahmednagar in 1707; the war ended. The 18th century became the century of the Marathas.

Important terms

• War of Independence – the Marathas' 27-year fight to keep Swaraj free from the Mughals.
• Guerrilla tactics – sudden attacks by small mobile groups.
• Budhbhushanam – Sanskrit book on polity by Sambhaji Maharaj.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why did Sambhaji Maharaj return halfway from the Janjira campaign?

While his army was attacking the Siddi's Janjira fort, the Mughal army invaded Swaraj, so he had to abandon the campaign and turn back.

Q2. Why did Sambhaji Maharaj decide to teach the Portuguese a lesson?

The Portuguese of Goa joined hands with Aurangzeb against him, so he attacked their Revdanda fort and then Goa.

Q3. Why was it decided to defend Raigad under Maharani Yesubai?

It was risky for the whole royal family to stay at one place. So Rajaram Maharaj escaped to Jinji to keep the Chhatrapati safe, while Yesubai stayed to lead the defence of Raigad.

Q4. Why did Aurangzeb turn to the Adilshahi and Qutubshahi kingdoms?

His campaign against the Marathas was not succeeding, so he suspended it and conquered these two kingdoms to gain their wealth and armies.

Q5. What was Maharani Tarabai's contribution?

After Rajaram Maharaj's death she led the Marathas for seven years, managed administration herself, encouraged Sardars, carried the war into Mughal territories and used clever strategies, keeping Swaraj strong.

Exam tip

Remember who did what: Santaji–Vithoji (golden pinnacle), Yesaji Kank (Goa battle), Yesubai (Raigad defence).

Quick summary

After Aurangzeb's death, the Mughals were on the defensive and the Marathas expanded their power across India. This chapter covers the release and coronation of Shahu Maharaj, the separate Kolhapur kingdom, Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath and the Chauthai–Sardeshmukhi rights, and the campaigns of Bajirao I and Chimajiappa.

Key points

• Aurangzeb's son Azamshah released Shahu Maharaj, hoping a quarrel between him and Tarabai would weaken the Marathas.
• Shahu Maharaj and Tarabai fought at Khed on the Bhima; Shahu won, was crowned at Satara, which became the capital.
• In 1710 Tarabai declared her son Shivaji II Chhatrapati at Panhala – a separate Maratha kingdom at Kolhapur began.
• Shahu Maharaj knew Mughal politics well. New Maratha policy: protect the weak Mughal empire (from Irani, Afghan, Rohilla, Jat threats) and expand Maratha power in that role – "restoring an old temple is as good as building a new one".
• Balaji Vishwanath of Shrivardhan (Konkan) became Peshwa; won Sardars to Shahu's side and won over navy chief Kanhoji Angre without war.
• 1719: with help of the Sayyid brothers, Balaji got sanads to collect Chauthai (one-fourth) and Sardeshmukhi (one-tenth) of revenue from Mughal territory in the Deccan.
• Bajirao I became Peshwa in 1720 and expanded the empire for 20 years.
• Battle of Palkhed (near Aurangabad): Bajirao defeated the Nizam, who accepted the Marathas' right to Chauthai–Sardeshmukhi.
• Malwa: Chimajiappa with Malharrao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde and Udaji Pawar established Maratha posts.
• Bundelkhand: King Chhatrasal appealed for help; Bajirao defeated Mohammad Khan Bangash, and Chhatrasal honoured him.
• 1737: Bajirao marched on Delhi. Battle of Bhopal: he defeated the Nizam, who agreed to get the Malwa subhedari for the Marathas.
• 1739: Chimajiappa captured Thane and the strong Vasai fort from the Portuguese.
• Bajirao set out to defend Delhi against Nadirshah of Iran but died at Raverkhedi on the Narmada in April 1740.
• In his time, the Shinde, Holkar, Pawar and Gaikwad families rose to prominence.

Important terms

• Chauthai – right to collect one-fourth of the revenue of a region.
• Sardeshmukhi – right to collect an additional one-tenth of the revenue.
• Sanad – official grant or charter.
• Peshwa – prime minister of the Chhatrapati.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why were two separate Maratha States formed?

After Shahu Maharaj was crowned at Satara, Tarabai did not accept him and declared her son Shivaji II as Chhatrapati at Panhala in 1710. So kingdoms at Satara and Kolhapur arose.

Q2. Why did Azamshah release Shahu Maharaj?

He thought Shahu's release would start a fight between Shahu and Tarabai for the throne, which would weaken the Marathas.

Q3. Why did Delhi need the help of the Marathas?

The Mughal power was threatened by Irani and Afghan invaders and by Pathans, Rajputs, Jats and Rohillas; quarrels in the court had also weakened it.

Q4. Write about the Battle of Palkhed.

The Nizam opposed the Maratha right to collect Chauthai–Sardeshmukhi and captured part of Pune pargana. Bajirao defeated him at Palkhed near Aurangabad, and the Nizam accepted the Maratha rights.

Q5. Write about Kanhoji Angre.

He was the chief of the Maratha navy. He first sided with Tarabai and attacked Shahu's territory, but Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath avoided war and won him over to Shahu Maharaj's side.

Exam tip

One-word answers: Shrivardhan (Balaji), Chhatrasal (Bundelkhand), Raverkhedi (Bajirao's death), Chimajiappa (defeated Portuguese).

Quick summary

In the mid-18th century, the Marathas took on the responsibility of protecting the Mughal empire and India from foreign invaders like Ahmadshah Abdali. This chapter covers the 1752 treaty, the Maratha standard at Attock, Dattaji Shinde's bravery, the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), and how Peshwa Madhavrao revived Maratha power.

Key points

• After Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao alias Nanasaheb became Peshwa.
• Rohillas were Pathans from Afghanistan who settled in Rohilkhand at the foothills of the Himalayas; the Marathas subdued them at the Nawab of Ayodhya's request.
• Ahmadshah Abdali, ruler of Afghanistan, invaded the Punjab in 1751.
• Treaty of April 1752: the Marathas agreed to protect the Mughal empire from Rohillas, Jats, Rajputs and Afghans; in return they got money, Chauthai rights in Punjab, Multan, Rajputana, Sindh and Rohilkhand, and the Subhedari of Ajmer and Agra.
• Many northern rulers stayed neutral or opposed the Marathas; only Surajmal Jat and Rani Kishori helped the wounded after Panipat.
• 1758: Raghunathrao and Malharrao Holkar drove Abdali's men out of Punjab and raised the Maratha standard at Attock (now in Pakistan), pushing to Peshawar.
• Dattaji Shinde fought Abdali at Buradi Ghat on the Yamuna and died a hero; his reply "Bachenge to aur bhi ladenge" is famous.
• Sadashivraobhau (Chimajiappa's son) went north with Vishwasrao and artillery under Ibrahimkhan Gardi (who had defeated the Nizam at Udgir in 1760).
• Third Battle of Panipat – 14 January 1761: Vishwasrao was killed; Bhau disappeared in battle; the Marathas were defeated; about 1,50,000 people died – a whole generation lost.
• The Marathas fought with the view that India is for Indians – they were the first to see India as one country.
• Peshwa Madhavrao defeated the Nizam at Rakshasbhuvan near Paithan and Hyder Ali at Moti Talav; reformed justice (Ramshastri Prabhune), had Nana Phadnavis as administrator, dug wells in Pune, started artillery factories and a mint. He died in 1772.
• Mahadji Shinde, Tukoji Holkar and others revived Maratha power in the North and restored Emperor Shah Alam to the throne.
• Abdali never invaded again. Tipu Sultan (son of Hyder Ali) died fighting the British in 1799.

Important terms

• Rohillas – Afghan Pathans settled in Rohilkhand.
• Standard – flag of a kingdom raised as a sign of victory.
• Neutral – not taking any side.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why did the Mughal emperor sign a treaty with the Marathas in 1752?

The Mughals faced Abdali's invasions and anarchy, and no other power was strong enough to protect Delhi. The emperor trusted Maratha strength and integrity.

Q2. Write about the raising of the Maratha standard at Attock.

After Abdali looted Delhi, Raghunathrao and Malharrao Holkar recaptured Delhi, drove Abdali's officers out of Punjab and chased them to Attock in 1758, where they raised the Maratha flag.

Q3. Why did conflict arise between the Marathas and the Afghans?

Under the treaty, the Marathas had to protect the Mughal empire and win back territories from Abdali, while Abdali wanted Afghan control up to Punjab.

Q4. What were the after-effects of the Battle of Panipat?

The Marathas lost a whole generation and many brave Sardars, and their prestige fell. But Abdali also suffered losses, never invaded again, and the Marathas soon revived their power in the North.

Q5. Arrange chronologically: Rakshasbhuvan, death of Tipu, death of Madhavrao, Panipat, Buradi Ghat.

Buradi Ghat (1760) → Panipat (1761) → Rakshasbhuvan → death of Madhavrao (1772) → death of Tipu (1799).

Exam tip

Remember the Panipat date (14 January 1761) and the people: Sadashivraobhau, Vishwasrao, Ibrahimkhan Gardi, Abdali.

Quick summary

Maratha Sardar families – the Holkars, Bhosales, Shindes, Gaikwads, Pawars and others – spread Maratha power across India. This chapter reviews their work, the victory over the British at Wadgaon, the role of Nana Phadnavis, and how Maratha rule finally ended in 1818.

Key points

• Holkars of Indore: founded by Malharrao Holkar, expert in guerrilla warfare; helped establish Maratha power in Malwa and Rajputana and helped Peshwa Madhavrao after Panipat.
• Punyashloka Ahilyabai Holkar ruled for 28 years: new revenue laws, more cultivation, wells, lakes, trade; built temples, ghats, dharamshalas and drinking water at pilgrim places all over India (cultural integration); gave justice personally.
• Bhosales of Nagpur: Parasoji got the jagir of Varhad and Gondwan. Raghuji Bhosale was the bravest – Arcot in the South, Chauthai of Bengal, Bihar, Odisha. In 1751 they won Odisha from Alivardi Khan and held it till 1803. The British dug the "Maratha ditch" around Kolkata out of fear.
• Shindes of Gwalior: Ranoji Shinde; sons Jayappa, Dattaji, Mahadji. Mahadji modernised his army and artillery with French expert de Boigne; subdued Rohillas, Jats, Rajputs, Bundelas; defeated the British; got the title 'Vakil-i-Mutlak'; defeated Ghulam Kadir and restored the blinded Emperor; managed Delhi affairs 1784–1794. Died at Wanawadi, Pune.
• Battle of Wadgaon: Raghunathrao went to the British to become Peshwa; British marched from Mumbai via Borghat; Marathas under Mahadji cut their food supply and defeated them at Wadgaon; British handed over Raghunathrao.
• Delhi stayed under Maratha control till 1803.
• Gujarat: Khanderao Dabhade, Trimbakrao and Umabai (captured Ahmadabad fort); later the Gaikwads ruled from Vadodara. Pawars of Dhar and Dewas helped in the North.
• Nana Phadnavis managed the South with the Patwardhans, Haripant Phadke and Rastes. Kanhoji Angre and Tulaji strengthened the navy.
• After Mahadji and Nana died, Bajirao II (Raghunathrao's son) lacked leadership; Sardars quarrelled.
• British captured Pune in 1817 and hoisted the Union Jack; defeated the Marathas at Ashti (Solapur) in 1818 – Maratha rule ended, and the medieval period gave way to the modern period.

Important terms

• Sardar – noble/military commander.
• Vakil-i-Mutlak – chief agent of the Emperor with civil and military powers.
• Maratha ditch – ditch dug by the British around Kolkata for fear of the Bhosales.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Write about the work of Ahilyabai Holkar.

She ruled Indore ably for 28 years, made revenue laws, brought more land under cultivation, dug wells and tanks, encouraged trade, gave justice herself and built temples, ghats and dharamshalas at pilgrim places across India.

Q2. Describe the valour of Mahadji Shinde.

He modernised his army with de Boigne's help, defeated Rohillas, Jats, Rajputs and the British, punished Ghulam Kadir and restored the Emperor to the Delhi throne, reviving Maratha prestige after Panipat.

Q3. Write about Maratha rule in Gujarat.

Khanderao Dabhade and Trimbakrao founded it; Umabai defeated the Mughal Sardar of Ahmadabad and captured the fort; later the Gaikwads ruled from Vadodara.

Q4. Discuss the reasons for the end of Maratha rule.

After Mahadji and Nana Phadnavis died, Peshwa Bajirao II lacked leadership and could not unite the Sardars; family feuds and internal strife weakened them, and the British took advantage.

Q5. Arrange chronologically: battle of Ashti, Maratha dominance over Odisha, Union Jack in Pune.

Maratha dominance over Odisha (1751) → Union Jack in Pune (1817) → battle of Ashti (1818).

Exam tip

Link each family to its capital: Holkar–Indore, Bhosale–Nagpur, Shinde–Gwalior, Gaikwad–Vadodara, Pawar–Dhar/Dewas.

Quick summary

Maratha rule (Maratheshahi) lasted roughly from 1630 to 1810 CE. This chapter describes the social life of people in that period – village life, customs, food and dress, festivals, sports, religion, education, the life of women – and the art, architecture, painting and literature of the time.

Key points

• Shivaji Maharaj's Hindawi Swaraj was a State for the people's welfare; Maratha power lasted about 150 years.
• Villages were mostly self-sufficient; only salt was brought from outside. The Patil protected the village and got land as inam; the Kulkarni handled revenue. Twelve balutedars (blacksmith, carpenter, potter, goldsmith…) were paid in kind.
• Village occupations were divided into kali (field work) and pandhari (work in the village). Joint families were common; the barter system was used.
• Food: bhakari, onion, chutney (common people); rice, dal, chapati, milk products (rich). Dress: dhoti, kurta, angarakha, mundase; women wore nine-yard sarees.
• Customs: child marriage, polygamy; belief in muhurta, omens, astrology; lack of scientific attitude.
• Festivals: Gudhi Padwa, Nagpanchami, Bail-pola, Dasara (seemollanghan, apta leaves, campaigns began after Dasara), Diwali, Sankrant, Holi, Eid. Ganeshotsav became important in the Peshwa period (Peshwas were Ganesha devotees).
• Sports: wrestling, mallakhamb, dandpatta, lathi; hututu, kho-kho, atyapatya; indoor – chess, ganjifa, dice. Tamasha and jatras were popular.
• Religious policy was liberal; grants given to pathshalas, temples, madarsas and mosques. Panths: Varkari, Mahanubhav, Datta, Nath, Ramdasi.
• Education in pathshalas and madarsas; the Modi script was used in most transactions.
• Women faced hardships – child marriage, sati, widowhood, keshavapan; few exceptional women: Jijabai, Yesubai, Tarabai, Umabai Dabhade, Gopikabai, Ahilyabai.
• Architecture: Lal Mahal, Rajgad, Raigad, sea forts; architect Hiroji Indulkar; wadas like Shaniwarwada and Vishrambagwada; water supply systems and Mastani Talav.
• Temples in Hemadpanti style; Bhavani temple at Pratapgad and Saptakoteshwar at Goa built by Shivaji Maharaj. Finest ghat: Toke at the Godavari–Pravara confluence.
• Painting: Shaniwarwada walls; painter Gangaram Tambat. Marathi drama began at Tanjavur (Sarfoji Raje).

Important terms

• Balutedar – village artisan paid in kind.
• Barter – exchange of goods without money.
• Wada – large traditional mansion.
• Hemadpanti – temple style without mortar, from the Yadava period.
• Modi – cursive script used for writing Marathi.

Important dates and people

• 1630–1810 CE – Maratheshahi
• Hiroji Indulkar – architect; Gangaram Tambat – painter; Sarfoji Raje – patron of Marathi drama at Tanjavur

5 important questions

Q1. Describe the standard of living of people in that period.

Most people lived in self-sufficient villages in simple mud-brick houses, ate bhakari, onion and chutney, used barter, and wore dhoti, kurta and nine-yard sarees. The rich lived in wadas and had richer food.

Q2. How was Dasara celebrated?

Weapons were worshipped, people crossed the village boundary ceremonially (seemollanghan) and exchanged apta leaves. New works began and military campaigns started after Dasara.

Q3. What was the condition of women?

Their life was hard and confined to home; education was neglected; customs like child marriage, sati, widowhood and polygamy restricted them. Only a few women like Jijabai and Ahilyabai rose to prominence.

Q4. Compare life then and now in transport and script.

Then: goods carried on bullocks, small river boats, messengers on camels; Modi script. Now: buses, railways, aeroplanes; Devanagari and Roman scripts with computers.

Q5. Write about the architecture of Maratheshahi.

Forts and sea forts, wadas like Shaniwarwada, Hemadpanti temples, stone ghats like Toke with bastions, and water systems with underground pipes, tanks and fountains.

Exam tip

Practise the "then vs now" comparison chart – it is a common question.

Quick summary

Just as a school or a game has rules, a country is run according to rules. The book in which all the rules for running a country are written systematically is its Constitution. This chapter explains the meaning and need of a Constitution and how the Indian Constitution was made.

Key points

• Constitution (संविधान): the book in which all provisions about the administration of a country are written together in a systematic way. It is the fundamental law of the land.
• The government must make laws within the Constitution; otherwise the judiciary can declare those laws unconstitutional (null and void).
• Provisions cover citizenship, rights of citizens, relations between citizens and the State, elections, limits on government, etc.
• The American Constitution (1789) is written and has only 7 articles. The English Constitution is mainly unwritten – based on conventions; the Magna Carta (1215) began its development.
• Need for a Constitution: limits misuse of power; protects citizens' rights and freedoms; establishes the rule of law; increases people's faith and participation; gives political ideals; fixes citizens' duties.
• Administration includes defence, poverty removal, employment, education, health, industry, protection of weaker sections, women, children and tribals.
• Making of the Constitution began in 1946 through the Constituent Assembly of 299 members (representatives of provinces and princely states).
• Dr Rajendra Prasad – President of the Constituent Assembly. Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar – Chairman of the Drafting Committee, called the Architect of the Indian Constitution. B. N. Rau – Constitutional Adviser.
• Other members: Nehru, Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, Sarojini Naidu, J. B. Kripalani, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Durgabai Deshmukh, Hansaben Mehta. (Mahatma Gandhi was not a member.)
• Writing took 2 years, 11 months and 17 days. The original Constitution had 22 parts, 395 articles and 8 schedules.
• Adopted on 26 November 1949 (Constitution Day); came into force on 26 January 1950 (Republic Day).

Important terms

• Constituent Assembly – body that made the Constitution.
• Rule of law – government according to law, not according to the wishes of rulers.
• Unconstitutional – against the Constitution.
• Princely states – areas ruled by local princes during British rule.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is a Constitution?

The written document in which all the provisions regarding the administration of a country are systematically recorded. It is the basic law of the country.

Q2. Why is Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar called the Architect of the Indian Constitution?

As Chairman of the Drafting Committee, he studied many constitutions, prepared the draft, presented it, answered questions, made changes suggested by the Assembly and made every provision flawless.

Q3. Why do we celebrate 26 January as Republic Day?

The Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950 and India became a Republic on that day.

Q4. What are the advantages of running a country by a Constitution?

Misuse of power reduces, people's rights are safe, rule of law is established, people's faith and participation increase, and the nation follows clear ideals.

Q5. Which country's Constitution is primarily unwritten?

England's – it is based on conventions and traditions, beginning with the Magna Carta of 1215.

Exam tip

Remember the numbers: 299 members; 2 years 11 months 17 days; 22 parts, 395 articles, 8 schedules.

Quick summary

The Preamble is the introduction to our Constitution. It states the aims of the Constitution – to make India a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic – and promises all citizens justice, liberty, equality and fraternity with the dignity of the individual.

Key points

• A systematic statement of the aims of a law is its preface; the preface of the Constitution is called the Preamble (उद्देशिका / सरनामा).
• It begins with "We, the people of India" and ends by saying the people gave the Constitution to themselves – the people are the source of authority.
• Sovereign: not under the control of any foreign power; in a democracy, sovereignty rests with the people (popular sovereignty).
• Socialist: the gap between rich and poor is kept minimum; wealth is not concentrated in a few hands.
• Secular: all religions are equal; no State religion; citizens are free to follow their religion; no discrimination by religion.
• Democratic: power is in the hands of the people, who elect representatives at fixed intervals.
• Republic: all public positions (President, PM, Governor, CM, Mayor, Sarpanch) are elected, not hereditary.
• Justice: social (no discrimination by caste, creed, race, language, region, birth or sex), economic (right to a livelihood, removal of poverty), political (universal adult franchise – every citizen of 18+ can vote).
• Liberty: freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship – to be used responsibly.
• Equality: of status and of opportunity, without discrimination.
• Fraternity: a "we-feeling" and empathy among citizens; closely linked with the dignity of the individual.

Important terms

• Preamble – introduction stating the objectives of the Constitution.
• Sovereignty – supreme authority to govern oneself.
• Adult franchise – right to vote for all adult citizens (18 years and above).
• Fraternity – feeling of brotherhood and unity.
• Human dignity – equal respect for every person as a human being.

Important dates and people

• Key words of the Preamble: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic; Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity; dignity of the individual.

5 important questions

Q1. What is meant by a Sovereign State?

A State that is not under the control of any foreign power and takes its own decisions. India became sovereign on 15 August 1947.

Q2. What are the provisions of a secular Constitution?

All religions are treated as equal; there is no State religion; citizens are free to follow, practise and spread their religion; and the State does not discriminate on the basis of religion.

Q3. What is meant by adult franchise?

Every citizen who has completed 18 years of age has the right to vote, without discrimination of caste, religion, sex or wealth.

Q4. What right does economic justice ensure?

Every citizen has the right to a source of livelihood to look after himself or herself and the family, so that poverty and hunger are removed.

Q5. How will human dignity be established in a society?

When every person respects others, honours their freedom and rights, and treats everyone equally regardless of caste, religion, sex or language, dignity of the individual is established and fraternity grows.

Exam tip

Learn the meaning of each key word of the Preamble in one line – "explain the concept" questions come directly from them.

Quick summary

Besides the ideals of the Preamble, the Indian Constitution has several important features – federalism with division of powers, union territories, a parliamentary system, an independent judiciary, single citizenship, a balanced amendment procedure and an independent Election Commission.

Key points

• Federalism (संघराज्य पद्धती): government works at two levels – the Union (Central) Government for the whole country and State Governments for each State. This suits a large country and lets people in far areas participate.
• Union List – 97 subjects (defence, foreign relations, war and peace, currency, international trade).
• State List – 66 subjects (agriculture, law and order, local government, health, prisons).
• Concurrent List – 47 subjects (employment, environment, planning, personal law, education); both can make laws.
• Division of subjects into three lists:
• Subjects not in any list – Residuary Powers – belong to the Union Government.
• India has a Union Government, 28 States and 9 Union Territories (Delhi, Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Andaman and Nicobar, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Lakshadweep); UTs are controlled by the Union Government.
• Parliamentary system: Parliament (President + Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha) has the highest decision-making power; the Council of Ministers comes from the Lok Sabha and is answerable to it.
• Independent judiciary: courts settle disputes impartially; judges are appointed by the President and cannot be removed easily.
• Single citizenship: all are citizens of India.
• Amendment procedure is neither too rigid nor too flexible – important changes need careful thought.
• Election Commission – an independent body that conducts free and fair elections.
• Examples of two levels: currency notes say "Guaranteed by the Central Government"; badges read "Maharashtra Police"; Indian Railways vs MSRTC.

Important terms

• Federation – system where powers are divided between the Centre and States.
• Residuary powers – power to make laws on subjects not in any list (with the Union).
• Union Territory – area governed directly by the Union Government.
• Amendment – change in the Constitution.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why does the Government function at two levels in a federation?

Governing a large country with a huge population from one capital is difficult and far-off areas may be neglected. Two levels allow better administration and people's participation.

Q2. What are residuary powers?

The power to make laws on subjects that are not mentioned in any of the three lists. In India this power is with the Union Government.

Q3. Why has the Constitution created an independent judiciary?

So that disputes are decided impartially without pressure from the government, citizens' rights are protected and justice is ensured.

Q4. Give one word: (a) machinery for governance of the entire country (b) machinery for conducting elections (c) third list of subjects.

(a) Union Government (b) Election Commission (c) Concurrent List.

Q5. Why is the amendment procedure neither too easy nor too difficult?

Frequent changes could cause instability, so important amendments need careful consideration; but the Constitution must also change with times, so general amendments are possible easily.

Exam tip

Learn two examples of subjects in each list and their numbers (97, 66, 47).

Quick summary

Rights help every person develop freely. The Indian Constitution guarantees equal rights to all citizens; because they are in the Constitution, they have the status of law and are called Fundamental Rights. This chapter explains the Right to Equality, the Right to Liberty and the Right against Exploitation.

Key points

• We get rights at birth – every newborn has the right to live. Rights protect us from injustice, exploitation, discrimination and deprivation.
• Fundamental Rights (मूलभूत हक्क) are guaranteed by the Constitution; everybody must respect them.
• Equality before law and equal protection of laws (e.g. no arrest without warrant).
• No discrimination on grounds of religion, caste, race, sex, descent, place of birth or residence in government jobs.
• Untouchability is abolished; practising it is a cognizable offence.
• Titles like Raja, Maharaja, Raobahadur are abolished. Awards like Bharat Ratna (highest civilian honour), Padmavibhushan, Padmabhushan, Padmashree, and military medals like Param Vir Chakra, Ashok Chakra, Shaurya Chakra are only recognitions, not special privileges.
• Right to Equality:
• Right to Liberty – freedom of: speech and expression; peaceful assembly; forming associations or unions; moving freely in India; residing and settling anywhere in India; any lawful profession, trade or business.
• Right to life: no one can take away another's life; no arrest or detention without reason; no punishment twice for the same offence; guilt must be proved in court.
• Right to Education: all children aged 6 to 14 have the right to education (now part of right to liberty/life).
• Freedoms must be used responsibly – e.g. freedom of expression does not allow inciting violence.
• Right against Exploitation: bans bonded labour, forced work, slavery-like treatment, denial of fair wages. Children under 14 cannot be employed in hazardous places like factories and mines.
• Supporting laws: Minimum Wages Act; Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act.

Important terms

• Fundamental rights – basic rights guaranteed by the Constitution with the status of law.
• Discrimination – unfair difference in treatment.
• Cognizable offence – crime for which police can arrest without a warrant.
• Exploitation – unfair use of someone's labour or weakness.

Important dates and people

• Right to Education: children aged 6–14
• Child labour in hazardous work banned: below 14 years

5 important questions

Q1. What do you understand by fundamental rights?

Rights guaranteed equally to all citizens by the Constitution, which have the status of law and help every person develop fully.

Q2. Why has the Constitution given equal rights to all citizens?

To end discrimination of high–low, rich–poor, men–women and to create an atmosphere where every person, and society as a whole, can develop.

Q3. Why is it prohibited to employ children under 14 in hazardous places?

Such work harms their health and safety and takes away their childhood and education. The Right against Exploitation gives special protection to children.

Q4. Which freedoms are included in the Right to Liberty?

Freedom of speech and expression, peaceful assembly, forming associations, moving freely, residing anywhere in India, and practising any lawful profession or business.

Q5. Correct the sentence: "The government can deprive you of a job by discriminating on the basis of religion, sex or place of birth."

The government cannot discriminate against any citizen on the basis of religion, sex or place of birth in giving jobs.

Exam tip

Match each example to a freedom: forming a forum = association, moving a business = profession/movement, writing an article = expression.

Quick summary

This chapter continues the Fundamental Rights. It explains the Right to Freedom of Religion, Cultural and Educational Rights, and the Right to Constitutional Remedies – the right to go to court when our rights are violated – along with the five writs that courts can issue.

Key points

• Right to Freedom of Religion: every citizen is free to practise any religion and to set up institutions for religious purposes.
• To widen this freedom: (1) the State cannot impose religious taxes to promote a particular religion; (2) religious education cannot be made compulsory in institutions that get State aid.
• Cultural and Educational Rights: communities can preserve their unique culture, language, script and literature, promote them, and set up institutions for their development.
• Right to Constitutional Remedies: if any fundamental right is violated, citizens can go to the court; it is the courts' constitutional duty to protect rights.
• Infringement of rights: arrest without reason, stopping a person leaving a village without valid reason, denying food, water or medicine to jail inmates, refusing a scheme's benefit unfairly.
• Habeas Corpus – protection from unlawful arrest and detention.
• Mandamus – orders the government to perform its public duty.
• Prohibition – stops a subordinate court from exceeding its jurisdiction.
• Quo Warranto – stops a person from acting in an office he is not entitled to.
• Certiorari – transfers a case from a subordinate court to a superior court.
• Courts (Supreme Court and High Courts) issue writs to protect rights:
• Because courts protect rights, citizens can act as alert, responsible and active citizens – and must also remember their duties.

Important terms

• Infringement – violation or encroachment of a right.
• Writ – a written order issued by a court.
• Jurisdiction – the limits of a court's authority.
• Redressal – getting a wrong corrected.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why does the Constitution prevent the imposition of religious taxes?

India is secular. A tax used to promote one religion would force citizens of other faiths to support it, which is against freedom of religion and equality.

Q2. What is meant by the Right to Constitutional Remedies?

If any fundamental right is violated, a citizen can approach the court for justice. The Constitution itself provides this legal remedy, and courts must protect the rights.

Q3. Give one word: (a) protection from illegal arrest (b) restraining a person from an office he is not entitled to (c) order to government to do its duty (d) order stopping a lower court from exceeding its powers.

(a) Habeas Corpus (b) Quo Warranto (c) Mandamus (d) Prohibition.

Q4. Why can we celebrate all festivals joyfully and preserve our language?

Because the Constitution gives us the Right to Freedom of Religion and Cultural and Educational Rights.

Q5. An officer refuses a destitute woman a scheme's benefit saying "You don't look destitute," though she has all documents. Is her right infringed? Where can she go?

Yes, she has been denied her right unfairly. She can approach the court for redressal under the Right to Constitutional Remedies.

Exam tip

Learn the five writs with their one-line meanings – one-word and match-the-pair questions use them.

Quick summary

Fundamental Rights put limits on the government, while the Directive Principles of State Policy tell the government what policies to follow for people's welfare. Fundamental Duties remind citizens of their responsibilities. Together they help build a developed, progressive and democratic India.

Key points

• Fundamental Rights restrict the State: no discrimination, equality before law, no deprivation of life, no religious taxes.
• Directive Principles of State Policy (मार्गदर्शक तत्त्वे) are guidelines to the Union and State Governments for achieving the goals of the Preamble.
• They were included because after independence India had to remove poverty, backwardness and illiteracy and build the nation.
• They are not binding like Fundamental Rights (we cannot go to court if one is not implemented), because implementing all of them at once needs huge resources; but citizens can pressure the government.
• Important Directives: adequate livelihood for all without gender discrimination; equal pay for equal work for men and women; better public health; protecting environment, forests and wildlife; protecting historic monuments; promoting education and economic interests of weaker sections (SC/ST); public assistance in unemployment, old age, sickness; a uniform civil code; promotion of international peace.
• Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights are two sides of the same coin.
• Fundamental Duties – citizens should: abide by the Constitution and respect the National Flag and Anthem; cherish ideals of the freedom struggle; protect sovereignty, unity and integrity; defend the country; promote harmony and brotherhood and respect the dignity of women; preserve our composite culture; protect the environment and have compassion for living creatures; develop scientific temper, humanism and spirit of inquiry; safeguard public property and abjure violence; strive for excellence; parents/guardians must provide education to children aged 6–14.
• Government schemes like Swachh Bharat succeed only when people do their duties.

Important terms

• Directive Principles – instructions in the Constitution to guide State policy.
• Fundamental Duties – responsibilities of every citizen listed in the Constitution.
• Uniform civil code – same personal laws for all citizens.
• Scientific temper – thinking based on reason and evidence.

Important dates and people

• Fundamental Rights → limit the State; Directive Principles → guide the State; Fundamental Duties → guide citizens.

5 important questions

Q1. Why were the Directive Principles included in the Constitution?

To guide governments to remove poverty, illiteracy and backwardness, and to achieve the goals of the Preamble by making policies for people's welfare.

Q2. Why is it said that Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights are two sides of the same coin?

Fundamental Rights give citizens liberty, while Directive Principles create conditions for welfare and democracy. Both together help achieve the ideals of the Constitution.

Q3. Why does the State protect monuments of historic interest?

They are part of our heritage and national pride. Protecting them is one of the Directive Principles.

Q4. Which duties are broken: a boy scribbling on a historical structure; damaging a public bus?

Valuing and preserving our rich heritage, and safeguarding public property.

Q5. Say right or wrong and correct: "To give lesser wages to women than men for the same work."

Wrong. The Directive Principles say there should be equal pay for equal work for both men and women.

Exam tip

Remember: Directive Principles are not enforceable in court; Fundamental Rights are.