मानसशास्त्र Psychology

Quick summary

This chapter explains why psychology is a science. It describes the key features of science, how psychology grew from philosophy into a separate scientific discipline, its main research methods, the challenges it faces in being accepted as a science, and the importance of rational thinking in daily life.

Key points

• "Science" comes from the Latin scientia = knowledge.
• Key features of science: empirical evidence (knowledge from observation/experiment), objectivity (seeing facts as they are, without bias), systematic approach, replication (results can be repeated), verifiability, and theory building.
• History: psychology was a branch of philosophy until 1879. Wilhelm Wundt set up the world's first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 — the official start of psychology as a science.
• William James is called the father of American psychology (functionalism).
• Sigmund Freud (Austrian physician) proposed psychoanalysis in the 1890s, stressing the unconscious mind.
• J. B. Watson started behaviourism — study only observable behaviour.
• Carl Rogers and others advocated humanistic psychology in the second half of the 20th century.
• Cognitivism (1950s–60s) studies mental processes like memory and thinking.
• Research methods: experimental method (cause-and-effect, with independent and dependent variables), survey method (questionnaires/interviews to a sample), observation (natural or controlled), case study (in-depth study of one person/group), correlational studies (relationship between two variables).
• Challenges as a science: subjectivity of methods like introspection; difficulty in prediction and replication because people differ; ethical limits on experiments; criticism that experiments "objectify" humans; Thomas Kuhn said psychology is still in a pre-paradigmatic state.
• Rationality: thinking logically on the basis of facts. Albert Ellis (founder of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy, REBT) gave values of rational living such as self-acceptance, tolerance, flexibility and taking responsibility.

Important terms

• Empirical evidence – information gained through direct observation or experiment.
• Objectivity – freedom from personal bias, beliefs and wishes.
• Replication – getting the same results when a study is repeated.
• Correlation – a relationship in which change in one variable goes with change in another.
• Case study – detailed study of a single individual or unit.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Explain the key features of science.

Science is based on empirical evidence, is objective (free from bias), is systematic, can be replicated and verified by others, and builds theories that explain and predict events.

Q2. Why is 1879 important in the history of psychology?

In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at Leipzig, Germany. Psychology began to study the mind through experiments and became a separate science, not just a branch of philosophy.

Q3. Explain the experimental method.

The researcher changes one variable (independent variable) and measures its effect on another (dependent variable) while controlling other factors. It helps find cause-and-effect relationships.

Q4. What are the challenges in establishing psychology as a science?

Some methods are subjective; human behaviour is hard to predict and replicate; ethical limits restrict experiments; and some critics say treating people as objects dehumanises them.

Q5. Describe the characteristics of a rational person.

A rational person thinks logically, accepts facts, controls emotions, is flexible and tolerant, accepts himself and others, takes responsibility for his actions and does not hold irrational beliefs.

Exam tip

Match-the-pairs on psychologists and schools of thought are common — learn the person–school–idea table.

Quick summary

Intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use resources effectively when facing challenges. This chapter covers definitions and theories of intelligence, how it is measured (IQ and intelligence tests), types of tests, uses of intelligence testing, and new trends: social, emotional and artificial intelligence.

Key points

• Definitions: Lewis Terman – the ability to think on an abstract level. David Wechsler – the aggregate or global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment.
• Charles Spearman (1927): using factor analysis, gave the two-factor theory – a General factor (g) and Specific factors (s).
• Louis Thurstone: seven independent primary mental abilities.
• Raymond Cattell and John Horn: fluid intelligence (based on brain development, free from learning) and crystallised intelligence (gained through learning and experience).
• Howard Gardner: theory of multiple intelligences — nine independent types (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential).
• Robert Sternberg: includes practical intelligence — succeeding in real-life settings in line with one's goals.
• Measurement: Alfred Binet with Theodore Simon published the first intelligence scale in 1905 (revised 1908, 1911). Lewis Terman revised it at Stanford in 1916 (Stanford–Binet test). Army Alpha and Army Beta tests (1917, Robert Yerkes) were used in World War I.
• Wechsler scales: Wechsler–Bellevue (1939), WAIS for adults, WISC for children.
• Mental age (MA) – the age level at which a person succeeds on test items. IQ was introduced by William Stern (1912) as the ratio of mental age to chronological age.
• Types of tests: individual (Binet, Wechsler, Bhatia's Performance Test, Koh's Block Design) and group tests (Army Alpha, Raven's Progressive Matrices); verbal and non-verbal tests.
• Uses: effective schooling, career guidance, selection, mental-health diagnosis, effective parenting, research.
• New trends: social intelligence (term by E. L. Thorndike, 1920; Karl Albrecht: getting along well with others), emotional intelligence (understanding and managing emotions) and artificial intelligence (machines that perform intelligent tasks).

Important terms

• Mental age – level of mental ability in terms of age norms.
• Chronological age – actual age from birth.
• Fluid intelligence – ability to solve new problems, largely independent of learning.
• Crystallised intelligence – knowledge and skills gained from experience.
• Group test – test given to many people at the same time.

Formulas

• IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100
• Example: MA = 12 years, CA = 10 years → IQ = (12 ÷ 10) × 100 = 120

5 important questions

Q1. Explain Spearman's two-factor theory.

Spearman (1927) found two factors: a General factor (g), a basic ability needed in all mental tasks, and Specific factors (s), abilities needed for particular tasks such as music or maths.

Q2. Find the IQ of a child whose mental age is 9 and chronological age is 10.

IQ = (MA ÷ CA) × 100 = (9 ÷ 10) × 100 = 90.

Q3. Distinguish between individual and group tests of intelligence.

Individual tests are given to one person at a time by a trained tester, are time-consuming but detailed (e.g. Binet, Wechsler). Group tests are given to many people at once, are economical and quick (e.g. Army Alpha, Raven's Matrices).

Q4. What is Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?

Howard Gardner said there are nine independent intelligences — linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic and existential — which develop differently in each person.

Q5. State the characteristics of socially intelligent people.

They understand and interact well with others, monitor their verbal and non-verbal expressions, are good speakers and listeners, read others' emotions and intentions, understand social dynamics and are flexible.

Exam tip

Practise IQ numericals and the chronology of intelligence tests (1905 → 1916 → 1917 → 1939).

Quick summary

Personality is the unique pattern of a person's thoughts, feelings and behaviour. This chapter explains the meaning and definitions of personality, the factors that shape it, three theories (Jung's types, Allport's traits and the Big Five model) and the methods used to measure personality.

Key points

• "Personality" comes from the Latin word persona, meaning a mask worn by actors.
• Definitions: Norman Munn – a unique combination of an individual's physical structure, needs, interests, abilities and aptitudes. Gordon Allport – "the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environment."
• Factors shaping personality: heredity (physique, intelligence, temperament), endocrine glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal), family and parenting, childhood experiences, peer group, school, culture, nutrition and exercise, technology and media.
• Carl Jung (type theory): introverts (shy, reserved, prefer being alone), extroverts (social, outgoing, talkative) and ambiverts (a mix of both — most people).
• Allport (trait theory): cardinal traits (one dominant trait shaping a whole life), central traits (5–10 traits that best describe a person), secondary traits (shown only in some situations). A trait is consistent over time.
• Big Five model — Robert McCrae and Paul Costa (1987): Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN). These are basic tendencies rooted in biology and shaped by culture.
• Behavioural analysis – observation, interview, rating scales.
• Self-report inventories – MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory), Cattell's 16 PF (16 Personality Factors), Big Five inventories.
• Projective methods – Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach, 1921) and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT, Morgan and Murray, 1935); the person projects hidden feelings into ambiguous pictures.
• Measurement of personality:

Important terms

• Trait – a stable, consistent characteristic of behaviour.
• Type – a category of people sharing similar characteristics.
• Introvert – a reserved person who prefers solitude.
• Extrovert – an outgoing, sociable person.
• Projective test – a test using unclear stimuli so the person reveals inner feelings.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Explain how heredity and environment shape personality.

Heredity gives physique, intelligence and temperament; endocrine glands influence energy and moods. Environment — family, childhood experiences, school, peer group and culture — shapes values, habits and self-concept. Personality results from both.

Q2. Describe Jung's classification of personality.

Jung divided people into introverts (shy, reserved, thoughtful, prefer solitude), extroverts (sociable, talkative, enjoy company) and ambiverts, who show features of both depending on situation.

Q3. Explain Allport's trait theory.

Allport said personality is made of traits. Cardinal traits dominate one's whole life; central traits (5–10) describe a person generally; secondary traits appear only in certain situations.

Q4. What are the Big Five factors of personality?

Openness to experience (curious, creative), Conscientiousness (organised, responsible), Extraversion (sociable), Agreeableness (kind, cooperative) and Neuroticism (anxious, emotionally unstable).

Q5. What are projective methods? Give examples.

Methods in which a person is shown unclear stimuli and asked to interpret them, so hidden thoughts and feelings are projected. Examples: Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test.

Exam tip

Remember "OCEAN" for the Big Five and "C-C-S" (cardinal, central, secondary) for Allport.

Quick summary

Cognitive processes are the mental processes we use to know and understand the world. This chapter explains four of them — attention, perception, thinking and learning — with their definitions, types, laws and theories.

Key points

• Attention: Guilford – focusing on one or a few objects from among many in the field of awareness. Norman Munn – bringing a few stimuli into the centre of awareness.
• Features of attention: selective, has a limited span, shifting or fluctuation of attention, and distraction (attention pulled away by another stimulus, e.g. loud music while studying). Attention depends on external factors (intensity, size, movement, novelty, repetition) and internal factors (interest, needs, mood).
• Perception: the process of giving meaning to sensory information on the basis of past experience. Bottom-up processing builds from details to the whole; top-down processing uses knowledge and expectation.
• Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation (Max Wertheimer): proximity (near things seen together), similarity (similar things seen together), continuity (lines seen continuing in the same direction), closure (incomplete figures seen as complete).
• Thinking: mental manipulation of information using mental representations — images, concepts, schemas. Concept – a mental category of objects with common features. Problem solving – finding solutions to problems; decision making and reasoning are kinds of thinking.
• Learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience or practice.
• Classical conditioning – Ivan Pavlov: a dog learnt to salivate at the sound of a bell paired with food (association between two stimuli).
• Operant conditioning – B. F. Skinner: behaviour followed by positive consequences (reinforcement) is repeated; followed by punishment is reduced.
• Cognitive learning – Edward Tolman: rats formed "cognitive maps" of a maze even without reward (latent learning).
• Learning by assimilation and accommodation – fitting new information into existing schemas or changing schemas (Piaget's idea).
• Observational learning – Albert Bandura: we learn by watching others (models) and imitating them.

Important terms

• Stimulus – anything that excites a sense organ.
• Schema – organised mental framework of knowledge.
• Reinforcement – a consequence that strengthens behaviour.
• Conditioned stimulus – a neutral stimulus (bell) that produces a response after being paired with a natural one (food).
• Cognitive map – mental picture of a place or route.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is attention? Explain distraction and fluctuation.

Attention is focusing the mind on a few stimuli among many. Distraction happens when attention is pulled away by another strong stimulus. Fluctuation is the natural shifting of attention from one object to another or back and forth.

Q2. Explain any two laws of perceptual organisation.

Law of proximity: objects close to each other are seen as a group. Law of closure: we tend to see an incomplete figure (like a broken circle) as complete.

Q3. Explain Pavlov's classical conditioning.

Pavlov rang a bell before giving food to a dog. After many pairings, the dog salivated at the bell alone. Learning happened by association between the bell (conditioned stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus).

Q4. Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning.

In classical conditioning learning occurs by association of two stimuli and the response is involuntary (Pavlov). In operant conditioning learning depends on consequences — rewarded behaviour is repeated and the response is voluntary (Skinner).

Q5. What is observational learning?

Bandura said we learn many behaviours by watching a model and later copying it — e.g. a child learning to speak politely by watching parents. Attention, memory, ability and motivation are needed.

Exam tip

Use one daily-life example with every concept (e.g. bell at school for classical conditioning, prize for good marks for operant).

Quick summary

Emotions are a mix of bodily arousal, expressive behaviour, thoughts and feelings. This chapter covers the main theories of emotion, the basic emotions, physiological changes during emotion, emotional well-being, emotional abuse and ways of managing emotions, especially anger.

Key points

• "Emotion" comes from the Latin emovere — to stir up or move. David Myers: human emotion involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviour and conscious experience.
• James–Lange theory: we feel emotion because of bodily arousal — "we feel sad because we cry", not the other way round.
• Cannon–Bard theory (thalamic theory, 1927): the emotional feeling and bodily arousal occur at the same time but separately, triggered by the thalamus.
• Schachter–Singer two-factor theory: emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label (how we interpret the arousal).
• Facial feedback hypothesis: facial expressions send feedback to the brain and influence the emotion we feel.
• Basic emotions (Paul Ekman's research): happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. Plutchik's model (wheel of emotions) shows emotions evolved for survival and vary in intensity, e.g. annoyance → anger → rage.
• Physiological changes: faster heartbeat and breathing, sweating, adrenaline release, dilated pupils, muscle tension — the fight-or-flight response (term by Walter Cannon). The amygdala (limbic system) can override the thinking cortex when strongly triggered.
• Emotional well-being – managing positive and negative emotions so we can lead a healthy, productive life. Positive emotions energise us; it is not easily observable from outside.
• Emotional abuse – repeated insulting, controlling, threatening or ignoring that harms a person's self-worth. Steps: recognise it, set boundaries, talk to a trusted adult, seek help.
• Managing emotions – being open to feelings and regulating them in oneself and others for growth.
• Anger management – 3 R's: Relax (calm the body: breathing, music, meditation), Reassess (think again about the situation), Respond (react in a controlled, assertive way).

Important terms

• Physiological arousal – bodily changes such as heart rate and breathing during emotion.
• Fight-or-flight response – the body's automatic preparation to face or escape danger.
• Amygdala – part of the brain's limbic system that processes emotions, especially fear and anger.
• Emotional abuse – non-physical harm through words and behaviour.
• Trigger – a situation or cue that sets off an emotion like anger.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Compare the James–Lange and Cannon–Bard theories.

James–Lange: bodily arousal comes first and the emotion is our awareness of it. Cannon–Bard: the thalamus sends signals at the same time to the body (arousal) and to the cortex (feeling), so both occur together but independently.

Q2. Explain the two-factor theory of emotion.

Schachter and Singer said that we experience an emotion when there is physiological arousal and we give it a cognitive label based on the situation. The same arousal can be felt as fear or excitement depending on interpretation.

Q3. What physiological changes occur during emotions?

Heart rate and blood pressure rise, breathing becomes fast, adrenaline is released, pupils dilate, sweating increases and muscles tense — preparing the body for fight or flight.

Q4. Explain the 3 R model of anger management.

Relax – calm the body through breathing, meditation or music. Reassess – rethink the situation from different angles. Respond – reply calmly and assertively instead of reacting in rage.

Q5. What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

It states that facial expressions give feedback to the brain and can strengthen or even create emotions — e.g. smiling can make us feel happier.

Exam tip

Draw a simple flow chart for each theory (stimulus → arousal → emotion) — it makes comparison answers clear.

Quick summary

This chapter explains what psychological disorders are, how mental health and illness lie on a continuum, how disorders are classified (DSM-5 and ICD-11), the major disorders — anxiety, depressive, bipolar, trauma-related, substance-related and schizophrenia — and how to identify and treat them.

Key points

• Normal and abnormal behaviour are not two separate boxes. Mental Health Continuum Model (Keyes, 2002): health and illness are two ends of one continuum; people move along it (extremely healthy → moderately healthy → moderately unhealthy → extremely unhealthy).
• Illness–Wellness Continuum was given by John Travis (1972).
• A psychological disorder is a clinical syndrome involving disturbed emotions, thinking and behaviour that causes distress or dysfunction. DSM-5 gives five criteria, including a clinically significant syndrome (cluster of symptoms).
• Classification: DSM (American Psychiatric Association) — first edition 1952, present DSM-5 (2013). ICD (World Health Organization) — ICD-11 (2019) has 19 broad categories of mental disorders.
• Anxiety disorders: "anxietas" = troubled mind. Includes panic attacks and phobia — intense, irrational fear of something not very dangerous, lasting over six months and disturbing daily life.
• Depressive disorder: extreme sadness and guilt for at least two weeks, loss of interest, sleep and appetite changes.
• Bipolar disorder (manic-depressive): mood swings between mania (over-excitement) and depression.
• Trauma and stress related disorders: Acute Stress Disorder (symptoms from 3 days up to 4 weeks after trauma) and PTSD (continuing beyond that).
• Substance-related and addictive disorders: dependence on drugs, alcohol etc.
• Schizophrenia: term coined by Eugen Bleuler (1911) — "split mind". Symptoms: delusions, hallucinations (experiencing things that are not present), disorganised speech and bizarre behaviour.
• Identifying: warning signs called red flags — sudden change in behaviour, withdrawal, extreme mood swings, poor self-care, talk of self-harm.
• Treatment: psychotherapy and counselling, medication by a psychiatrist, family support, rehabilitation; the stigma around seeking help is reducing.

Important terms

• Syndrome – group of symptoms that occur together.
• Phobia – persistent irrational fear.
• Hallucination – perceiving something that is not actually there.
• Delusion – a firm false belief.
• DSM / ICD – standard manuals for classifying mental disorders.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Explain the nature of psychological disorders.

Mental health and illness lie on a continuum, so there is no sharp line between normal and abnormal. A disorder is a clinical syndrome of disturbed thinking, emotions and behaviour that causes distress or difficulty in daily functioning.

Q2. What is a phobia?

An intense, irrational fear of an object or situation that is not really dangerous, which lasts more than six months and creates problems in daily adjustment — e.g. fear of heights or of open places.

Q3. State the symptoms of depressive disorder.

Extreme sadness and guilt for at least two weeks, loss of interest and pleasure, fatigue, changes in sleep and appetite, poor concentration, feelings of worthlessness and sometimes suicidal thoughts.

Q4. What is schizophrenia?

A severe disorder meaning "split mind" (Bleuler, 1911). Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganised speech, bizarre behaviour and reduced emotional expression.

Q5. What are red flags of mental illness?

Warning signs such as sudden changes in mood or behaviour, withdrawal from people, neglect of self-care, extreme anxiety or anger, drop in performance and talk of hopelessness or self-harm.

Exam tip

Match-the-pairs here usually use years (2013, 2019, 1911, 1972) — revise the dates table.

Quick summary

Just as we give first aid for a physical injury, we can give first aid when someone is going through a mental health problem or crisis. This chapter explains why mental health first aid is needed, the barriers to seeking help, the ALGEE action plan, first aid in mental illness and common behavioural addictions.

Key points

• Mental Health First Aid (MHFA) is the help given to a person developing a mental health problem or in a mental health crisis, until professional help is received or the crisis ends.
• The MHFA course was developed in Australia by Betty Kitchener (a mental health nurse) and Anthony Jorm (professor of psychology). An organisation in Chennai got the international licence in 2017 to run MHFA across India.
• A NIMHANS national survey (2014–16) found that a large share of Indians suffer from common mental disorders, but most do not get treatment.
• Need for first aid: mental illness is common; people often do not recognise signs; stigma, lack of knowledge and superstitions (belief that illness comes from sins or supernatural forces) stop people from seeking help; early help (early intervention) prevents bigger problems.
• People with mental illness usually look like anyone else; early signs (red flags) are often noticed first by close friends and family — e.g. withdrawal, poor sleep, weight loss, irritability, guilt, falling performance.
• A – Approach, assess and assist with any crisis
• L – Listen non-judgmentally
• G – Give support and information
• E – Encourage appropriate professional help
• E – Encourage self-help and other support strategies
• ALGEE action plan:
• Listening non-judgmentally means listening with empathy and acceptance, without letting your own views influence you.
• First aid in panic attacks, depression or suicidal thoughts: stay calm, stay with the person, ask directly about safety, do not leave a suicidal person alone, get professional/emergency help.
• Behavioural addictions: compulsive activities that harm health and functioning — internet addiction, excessive social media use, gaming, gambling, shopping, exercise addiction. (DSM-5 does not treat most of these as mental disorders.) Help: relaxation techniques, healthy hobbies, setting limits, counselling.

Important terms

• Mental Health First Aid – initial help given to a person with a mental health problem before professional help.
• Early intervention – help given at the first signs of a problem.
• Stigma – negative labels and shame attached to mental illness.
• Behavioural addiction – compulsive dependence on an activity rather than a substance.
• Empathy – understanding and sharing another person's feelings.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is mental health first aid? Why is it needed?

It is the first help given to a person with a mental health problem until professional help arrives. It is needed because mental illness is common, people fail to recognise signs, stigma and superstition delay treatment, and early help prevents serious problems.

Q2. Explain the ALGEE action plan.

Approach, assess and assist in crisis; Listen non-judgmentally; Give support and information; Encourage professional help; Encourage self-help and other support strategies.

Q3. What does "listening non-judgmentally" mean?

Listening carefully to the person without criticising, advising too quickly or letting your own opinions interfere, showing empathy and acceptance so the person feels safe to share.

Q4. Why do people hesitate to seek help for mental illness?

Fear of social stigma, lack of awareness, superstitions that illness is caused by sins or spirits, cost and lack of services, and thinking they can manage alone.

Q5. What are behavioural addictions? Give examples.

Compulsive engagement in an activity despite harm to health, studies, work or relationships. Examples: internet and social media addiction, gaming, gambling and shopping addiction.

Exam tip

Write ALGEE as a vertical acronym in your answer — examiners look for all five steps.

Quick summary

Positive psychology studies what makes life worth living — strengths, positive emotions and well-being — instead of only illness. This chapter explains its meaning and importance, "life above zero", the Broaden and Build theory, and key positive qualities: happiness, optimism, empathy, mindfulness and resilience.

Key points

• Martin Seligman introduced positive psychology as a subfield in 1998 as the theme of the American Psychological Association conference.
• Seligman's definition: the scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing at biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural and global levels. Peterson (2008): the scientific study of what makes life worth living.
• Life above zero: traditional psychology worked on problems "below zero" (disorders); positive psychology works to take people "above zero" towards flourishing.
• Broaden and Build theory – Barbara Fredrickson: positive emotions broaden our thinking and actions and build lasting personal resources (skills, friendships, resilience).
• Happiness – a subjective positive emotional state; it depends a lot on how we look at the world.
• Optimism – Seligman, "father of optimism", explained it in "Learned Optimism": seeing the glass as half full. It has feeling and thinking components and can be learned.
• Empathy – Simon Baron-Cohen (2004): cognitive empathy (knowing what the other feels and thinks), emotional reactivity (feeling the other's emotions) and social skills.
• Mindfulness – a state of awareness: living in the present and being fully engaged in the task rather than worrying about past or future. Its opposite is mindlessness. Mindfulness meditation trains this.
• Resilience (APA): adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or serious stress; it can be learned. 7 C's of resilience: competence, confidence, connection, character, contribution, coping, control.
• Types of resilience: psychological, emotional, physical and community resilience. Example: boxer Mary Kom overcoming struggles.

Important terms

• Positive psychology – scientific study of strengths and well-being.
• Flourishing – living a full, meaningful and healthy life.
• Optimism – expecting good outcomes and looking at the positive side.
• Mindfulness – full attention to the present moment.
• Resilience – the ability to bounce back from difficulties.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is positive psychology?

It is the scientific study of what makes life worth living — positive emotions, strengths, virtues and flourishing — rather than only treating mental illness. Martin Seligman launched it in 1998.

Q2. Explain the Broaden and Build theory.

Barbara Fredrickson said positive emotions like joy and interest broaden our awareness and encourage new thoughts and actions. Over time this builds lasting resources such as skills, relationships and resilience.

Q3. What are the components of empathy?

According to Simon Baron-Cohen: cognitive empathy (understanding another's thoughts and feelings), emotional reactivity (feeling what the other feels) and social skills to respond appropriately.

Q4. What is mindfulness? How is it different from mindlessness?

Mindfulness is being fully aware of and engaged in the present moment. Mindlessness is doing a task with little attention and awareness, often while worrying about the past or future.

Q5. Explain the 7 C's of resilience.

Competence (skill to handle situations), confidence (belief in abilities), connection (bonds with family and community), character (sense of right and wrong), contribution (sense of purpose), coping (handling stress) and control (believing one can influence outcomes).

Exam tip

Learn the names attached to each idea (Seligman, Fredrickson, Baron-Cohen) — "who gave which theory" is a common one-mark question.