Education शिक्षणशास्त्र

Quick summary

Education is a lifelong process that brings about desirable change in behaviour. This chapter explains the meaning of education through definitions by Indian and Western thinkers, the levels of education from pre-primary to higher education, and the three types of education: formal, non-formal and informal.

Key points

• The word "education" comes from the Latin "Educare" – to bring up, to lead out, to draw out. So education means bringing out the hidden qualities and talents in a person. The Marathi word Shikshan comes from the Sanskrit root Shiksh.
• Indian thinkers: Vivekananda – manifestation of the perfection already in man; Gandhi – all-round drawing out of the best in child and man (body, mind, spirit); Tagore – expression of the self; Dr. S. Radhakrishnan – an instrument of social, economic and cultural change, value-laden and searching for truth.
• Western thinkers: Plato – perfect development of excellence in body and soul; Aristotle – a sound mind in a sound body; Rousseau – development of the child's inner natural powers; John Dewey – living life with continuous reconstruction of experiences.
• Levels: pre-primary (age 3–6), lower primary (Std I–V), upper primary (Std VI–VIII), secondary (IX–X), higher secondary or junior college (XI–XII), higher education (UG and PG).
• Under the RTE Act, free, compulsory and universal education for children aged 6–14 is the government's duty – admission, attendance and completion.
• Schemes to keep children in school: mid-day meals, free uniforms, free textbooks, scholarships, reservations.
• Education is in the Concurrent List. NCERT prepares the national framework; MSCERT prepares the state curriculum; Balbharati writes and prints textbooks for Std I–XII; the State Board (nine regional boards) conducts Std X and XII exams.
• Following the Mudaliar and Kothari Commissions, secondary education was restructured in Maharashtra from June 1972, and the 10+2+3 pattern was adopted from 1975.
• Formal education: given by schools, colleges and universities; pre-planned, systematic, goal-directed; has curriculum, timetable, teachers, exams and degrees.
• Non-formal education: complementary to formal education; learn in free time while working; through open schools, open universities and mass media; teacher and learner often apart; exams and certificates matter; a bridge between formal and informal education.
• Informal education: spontaneous learning from daily life – family, friends, society (e.g. dressing, drawing rangoli, greeting others). No planning, curriculum, timetable or exams.

Important terms

• Educare – Latin root of "education": to bring up or draw out.
• Formal education – planned, systematic education in institutions.
• Non-formal education – flexible education through open schools, open universities and media.
• Informal education – unplanned learning from everyday experience.
• Junior college – another name for higher secondary (Std XI–XII).

Key facts

Components – Formal: curriculum, teachers, students, timetable, teaching methods, management, exams. Non-formal: Board of Open Schooling, open universities, library, computer, mass media, teachers, students. Informal: family, environment, friends, discussions, picnics, internet, cultural programmes, camps, periodicals, TV, communities.

5 important questions

Q1. What does the Latin word "Educare" mean?

To bring up, to lead out or to draw out.

Q2. Give John Dewey's definition of education.

"Education is a process of living life with continuous reconstruction of experiences."

Q3. Which schemes has the government started to create interest in primary education?

Mid-day meals, free uniforms, free textbooks, scholarships and reservations for backward sections.

Q4. State the importance of formal education.

Meets society's educational needs; builds scientific, logical thinking; problems solved within the institution; teaching changes with the learner's needs; fixed time and exams lead to degrees that build confidence; identifies talent for careers.

Q5. "Non-formal education is complementary to formal education." Explain.

It gives a chance to those who missed formal schooling; they learn in free time while working; certificates help in jobs and promotion; it uses open schools, open universities and media; it bridges formal and informal education.

Exam tip

Learn the three types as a comparison table with one example each – match-the-columns questions (type – feature – example) are common.

Quick summary

This chapter introduces five educational thinkers of Maharashtra: Mahatma Jotirao Phule, Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve, Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh and Anutai Wagh. For each one, learn a short life sketch, their educational contribution (institutions with years) and their educational thoughts.

Key points

• Mahatma Jotirao Phule (born 11 April 1827, Katgun, Satara; died 28 November 1890): laid the foundation of women's education in Maharashtra with his wife Savitribai; worked for the education of backward classes.
• Phule started the first school for girls in Pune in 1848, two more girls' schools in 1851, a school for untouchable boys in 1852 and a night school for adults in 1855. He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873.
• In 1882 Phule asked the Hunter Commission for free and compulsory education for all. Thoughts: education is the support of life; free, compulsory primary education; women's education; vocational and technical education; scholarships and hostels; trained teachers; livelihood education instead of clerical education.
• Phule's famous lines say that lack of education leads to lack of wisdom, morals, progress and wealth – all these disasters come from illiteracy. Books: Gulamgiri, Shetkaryacha Asud.
• Maharshi D. K. Karve (born 18 April 1858, Sheravali, Ratnagiri; died 9 November 1962): treated women's education as worship of God. Orphanage for girls (1896), women's school at Hingne (1907), first women's university in India (1916) – later named S.N.D.T. after Vitthaldas Thackersey's mother; Maharashtra Gram Shikshan Mandal (1956). Awards: Padmabhushan (1955), Bharat Ratna (1958).
• Karve's thoughts: education improves society; mother tongue as medium but science and technology in English; varied curriculum; education for self-reliance; educating society is service to the nation.
• Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil (born 22 September 1887, Kumbhoj, Kolhapur; died 9 May 1959): inspired by Shahu Maharaj and Phule, founded the Rayat Shikshan Sanstha (1919; registered 1935), logo the banyan tree, motto "Self-reliant education is our motto". Started Earn and Learn.
• Bhaurao's work: hostel at Nerale (1921) for all castes with the Mushtifund (handful-of-grain) scheme; Satara hostel (1924), renamed Chhatrapati Boarding House (1927); Silver Jubilee Rural Training College (1935, now Mahatma Phule Adhyapak Vidyalaya); Chhatrapati Shivaji College (1947); Sadguru Gadge Maharaj College, Karad (1954).
• Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh (born 27 December 1898, Papal, Amravati; died 10 April 1965): founded Shri Shivaji Shikshan Sanstha, Amravati (1932); opened 100 free and compulsory education centres in Amravati district; Shri Shivaji Lok Vidyapeeth (1950); first Agriculture Minister of India (1952), founded Bharat Krishak Samaj. His mantra: education is to society what water is to agriculture.
• Anutai Wagh (born 17 March 1910, Morgaon, Pune; died 27 September 1992): worked under Tarabai Modak for tribal (adivasi) children at Bordi and Kosbad (Dahanu, Palghar) through play-way methods; started anganwadis, balwadis, creches and kuran shala (meadow schools). Padmashree (1985).

Important terms

• Satyashodhak Samaj – Phule's "Society of Seekers of Truth" (1873).
• S.N.D.T. – Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women's University.
• Earn and Learn – Bhaurao Patil's scheme where students work to pay for their education.
• Mushtifund – a handful of grain collected from homes to feed hostel students.
• Kuran shala – Anutai Wagh's meadow school for tribal children who graze cattle.

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. Who started the 'Earn and Learn' scheme in Maharashtra?

Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil.

Q2. Who founded the first women's university in India?

Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve, in 1916 (later SNDT Women's University).

Q3. State the educational thoughts of Mahatma Phule.

Education supports life; free and compulsory primary education for all; women's education; vocational and technical education; scholarships and hostels; trained teachers; livelihood education; education teaches right from wrong and brings social reform.

Q4. Write a note on the educational contribution of Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh.

Shivaji Vyayam Prasarak Mandal and Shraddhanand Chhatralaya (1926); Shri Shivaji Shikshan Sanstha (1932) with hostels; 100 free education centres in Amravati; colleges for rural students; C.P.Ed. and physical education college; Shri Shivaji Lok Vidyapeeth (1950); Rural Institute; Bharat Krishak Samaj.

Q5. Explain the educational thoughts of Anutai Wagh.

Handle the child's restless nature tactfully; teach through games, rhymes and stories; experiment in pre-primary education; use toys and local materials; give employment through work-experience education.

Exam tip

Learn each thinker's motto or special scheme: Phule – girls' school 1848; Karve – SNDT; Bhaurao – banyan tree, Earn and Learn, Mushtifund; Panjabrao – water and agriculture; Anutai – kuran shala.

Quick summary

Education and society are two sides of the same coin. This chapter explains educational sociology, the link between education and society, ways in which society takes part in education (people's participation, Balrakshak, Samtadoot, CSR and NGOs), the learning society and multicultural education.

Key points

• Educational sociology studies the interaction between the school and society and the process of socialization. George Payne gave it special status through his book Principles of Educational Sociology (1928), so he is called the father of educational sociology.
• Objectives of educational sociology: make schools cultural centres of society; social progress through education; define the role of teacher and school; show the value of formal, non-formal and informal education; healthy link between education and mass media.
• Characteristics: a branch of both education and sociology; applied sociology; analysis of socialization is its basic issue; helps decide educational objectives.
• Functions: modern social methods, social control and change, socialization, democratic culture, good citizens.
• People's participation: school is for society and society is for school. Society helps the school with resources, money, co-curricular activities, attendance and the knowledge of senior people. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments require citizens' say in local development (Gram Sabha, ward meetings).
• Balrakshak: a person who sensitively reduces the number of out-of-school children – finds them, makes parents aware, enrols them, gives quality education, keeps them in the mainstream and links school and society.
• Samtadoot project: started by BARTI, Pune (resolution of 5 July 2014) to spread the constitutional values of social justice, equality, fraternity and liberty, create awareness of the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989 and bring government schemes to deprived groups.
• CSR: under the Companies Act 2013, section 135, eligible companies spend 2% of profit on social causes; in force from 1 April 2014. In education: help poor students, facilities for out-of-school children, school infrastructure, skill education, support for innovative schools and teachers, adopted schools. Maharashtra's CSR committee is headed by the Secretary, School Education and Sports Department.
• NGO: organisations registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860 and the Bombay Public Trusts Act 1950, working for social welfare.
• Learning society: a society in which every person keeps learning throughout life. Objectives: social progress, self-awareness, removal of inequality, link formal and informal education, responsible citizens, bring the deprived into education.
• Multicultural education: education that respects the many languages, religions and customs living together (a multicultural society), aiming at unity in diversity.

Important terms

• Educational sociology – study of the relation between education and society.
• People's participation – society's active help in running and improving schools.
• Balrakshak – a protector who brings out-of-school children into school.
• CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility.
• Learning society – a society of lifelong learners.
• Multicultural society – people of different languages, religions and customs living together.

Key facts

• George Payne, 1928 – father of educational sociology.
• Samtadoot – BARTI, Pune, 5 July 2014.
• CSR – Companies Act 2013, section 135, 2% of profit, from 1 April 2014.
• NGO registration – Societies Registration Act 1860, Bombay Public Trusts Act 1950.
• Need of multicultural education: know other cultures; capable citizens; broad, positive outlook; global feeling; integration; respect for own and others' cultures; equal opportunity in a secular setting.
• Problems: cultural conflict, prejudice, social inequality, lack of awareness, lack of multicultural teaching methods.

5 important questions

Q1. Who is called the father of educational sociology?

George Payne, for his book Principles of Educational Sociology (1928).

Q2. Under which law is CSR compulsory, and from when?

Companies Act 2013, section 135; in force from 1 April 2014.

Q3. State the functions of a Balrakshak.

Find out-of-school children; make parents aware; enrol them; give quality education; keep them in the mainstream; make them physically and educationally capable; link school and society.

Q4. Write the importance of a learning society.

Builds a cultured, knowledge-based democratic society; equal opportunity and self-reliance; removes inequality; literate and self-sufficient society; scientific attitude; unity in diversity; universal citizenship; proper use of leisure.

Q5. Explain the need for multicultural education.

Introduce students to many cultures; build capable citizens of a multicultural society; broad-minded attitude; global feeling; respect for all cultures; unity in diversity; cultural exchange; equal opportunity in a secular environment.

Exam tip

Fill-in-the-blank questions come from the dates and names here: George Payne, Gram Sabha, Balrakshak, 1 April 2014, learning society.

Quick summary

Educational psychology applies the principles of psychology to teaching and learning. This chapter covers the meaning of psychology, definitions, objectives, nature and scope of educational psychology, the difference between growth and development, and the stages of human development with their educational importance.

Key points

• Aristotle's book De Anima ("about the soul") treated psychology as the science of the soul. Later it was called the study of mind; Wilhelm Wundt (1879) called it the science of consciousness; J. B. Watson said behaviour is its subject; William McDougall defined it as the "science of behaviour".
• Definitions of educational psychology: Skinner – psychology applied to improve the teaching-learning process; Crow and Crow – it describes and explains the learning experiences of a person from birth to old age; Guthrie and Powers – it applies known psychological principles to solve educational problems; McFarland – systematic study of human behaviour and experience in the context of teaching.
• Objectives: use psychological laws in teaching, personality development and adjustment; solve problems of class management and discipline; use motivation and punishment properly; understand individual differences; scientific educational and vocational guidance; understand memory, forgetting and factors in learning.
• Nature: an applied branch of psychology; a systematic study of educational development giving a scientific base to teaching and learning.
• Scope: the learner, the learning process, teaching methods, evaluation, and more (curriculum suited to age and interest, guidance, adjustment).
• Growth is measurable physical change (height, weight) that stops at a certain age. Development is a series of orderly, progressive, meaningful changes (coordination, emotions, abstract thinking) that goes on throughout life.
• Prenatal stages (conception to birth, about nine months): germinal (0–2 weeks), embryonic (2–10 weeks) and foetal (10 weeks to birth).
• Postnatal stages: infancy and early childhood (0–6 years), late childhood (6–12), adolescence (12–21), youth (21–40), adulthood (40–60), old age (60 till death).
• Early childhood: fast physical growth, dependent on adults, learns by imitation, curious, action-oriented – suited to rhymes, action songs and play.
• Adolescence (puberty about 12–14/16): a period of change called the stage of storm and stress; comparison between reality and ideals.
• Educational importance of adolescence: give responsibility with guidance; respect their opinions and give some freedom; avoid nagging; talk openly about their problems; keep the school environment supportive; never insult their personality.

Important terms

• Psychology – the science of behaviour.
• Educational psychology – psychology applied to teaching and learning.
• Growth – measurable increase in body size and structure.
• Development – orderly, progressive change in all aspects of personality.
• Adolescence – the stage of storm and stress (12–21 years).

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. Give Crow and Crow's definition of educational psychology.

"Educational psychology describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual from birth to old age."

Q2. Which stage is called the stage of storm and stress?

Adolescence (12–21 years).

Q3. State the difference between growth and development.

Growth is physical, measurable and stops at a certain age; development covers all aspects of personality, is qualitative and continues throughout life.

Q4. Write the objectives of educational psychology.

Apply psychology to teaching, personality and adjustment; class management and discipline; proper use of motivation and punishment; individual differences; guidance; understanding memory, forgetting and learning factors.

Q5. Explain the educational importance of the adolescence stage.

Responsibility with guidance; respect opinions and allow freedom; no nagging; understand and discuss their problems; supportive school; respect their personality.

Exam tip

Learn the age table of development stages and the growth vs development table – both appear as fill-ups and "explain the difference" questions.

Quick summary

Management decides objectives, plans and gets work done through people and resources. When it is applied to education it is educational management; actually carrying out the plans is educational administration. The chapter covers the concept and principles of management, the meaning, objectives, need and functions of educational management and administration, and the education officers at district and taluka level in Maharashtra.

Key points

• Management is a multipurpose means that manages a business, managers, work and workers. Scientific management began to be discussed in the 20th century.
• Henri Fayol gave 14 principles of management: division of work; authority and responsibility; discipline; unity of command; unity of direction; general interest above individual interest; remuneration; centralisation; hierarchy; order; equity; stability of tenure; initiative; team spirit (esprit de corps).
• Educational management = applying management to education so that human and physical resources are used well to reach educational aims.
• Functions of educational management: planning, organisation, co-ordination, direction, communication, decision making, motivation, control, adjustment and integrated use of resources, implementation, evaluation.
• Planning – ways to reach national objectives through policies and programmes. Organisation – giving roles to people. Co-ordination – setting limits of authority and linking work (e.g. principal and teacher). Direction – explaining tasks, giving orders and suggestions. Decision making – choosing one of several alternatives. Motivation – creating desire to finish a task. Control – measuring and correcting performance. Evaluation – measuring how far objectives are achieved.
• Educational administration means to plan, organise, counsel, co-ordinate and control; it is the actual implementation of plans. It is needed because education keeps changing with the times.
• Maharashtra state was formed on 1 May 1960. The Zilla Parishad and Panchayat Samiti law was accepted on 13 March 1962, and Panchayat Raj institutions began work from 1 May 1962. The district became the main unit of administration; education went to the Zilla Parishad.
• Education Officer (Primary), Zilla Parishad: in charge of district primary education – inspection and guidance of primary schools, transfers of ZP primary teachers, national programmes, reports to government, grants to private primary schools, kindergarten data.
• Deputy Education Officer: helps the Education Officer, holds teachers' group conferences, inspects private primary schools, monitors government policies, recommends staff transfers.
• Block Education Officer: in charge of educational administration of the taluka – sends information, distributes resources, inspects schools, supervises Extension Officers, makes surprise visits, works for quality.
• Education Extension Officer: each taluka is divided into parts called bits; one Extension Officer per bit inspects its primary schools.

Important terms

• Management – setting objectives and getting work done through people and resources.
• Educational administration – carrying out educational plans in practice.
• Decision making – choosing the best of two or more alternatives on set criteria.
• Control – checking actual work against the plan and correcting it.
• Bit – a part of a taluka under one Education Extension Officer.

Key facts

• 1 May 1960 – Maharashtra formed.
• 13 March 1962 – ZP and Panchayat Samiti law accepted; 1 May 1962 – Panchayat Raj began.
• Fayol – 14 principles of management.

5 important questions

Q1. Who gave the 14 basic principles of management?

Henri Fayol.

Q2. What is decision making?

Choosing one alternative out of two or more on the basis of specific criteria.

Q3. Write any four functions of educational management.

Planning, organisation, co-ordination, direction (also communication, decision making, motivation, control, implementation, evaluation) – one line each.

Q4. Write the functions of the Education Officer (Primary) of a Zilla Parishad.

Inspect and guide primary schools; control and transfer ZP primary teachers; review Extension Officers' work and report to government; celebrate national programmes; recommend grants for private schools.

Q5. Explain the need for educational administration.

Education changes with time, so administration is needed to bring the right changes, find problems, use resources well, implement policies, supervise schools and raise quality.

Exam tip

Remember the chain District → Taluka → Bit with its officer at each level, and the dates 1 May 1960 and 1 May 1962.

Quick summary

Pedagogy is the science that studies methods of teaching and learning. This chapter explains the concept of teaching, how teaching methods changed from ancient times (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, Islamic) to the modern period, how to choose a method, the principles and maxims of teaching, seven teaching methods and the characteristics of good teaching.

Key points

• Teaching means conveying content in simple language through activities, and helping students reconstruct knowledge from experience. Teaching is purposive and assists learning.
• Vedic period: two kinds of knowledge – Paravidya (spiritual knowledge, self-realisation) and Aparavidya (worldly knowledge for material life).
• Buddhist period: aim was Nirvana; methods – oral recitation, discussion and dialogue, debate, contemplation, meditation, lectures of scholars; learning in Vihars.
• Jain period: preaching (discourse, listening with concentration), reading scriptures, techniques like Aamnaya (reading correct and incorrect examples) and Prachhanna (asking the teacher).
• Islamic period: primary education in Maktabs, secondary in Madarsas (recitation, storytelling); higher education through speeches, discussion, reference reading and self-study.
• Modern period: Western people came in the later 18th century; Lord Macaulay brought English into education; recitation, grammar-translation methods; today technology and psychology allow many methods.
• Choosing a method depends on students' previous knowledge, age, the content, available resources and the objectives.
• Principles of teaching: motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic), learning by doing, life-oriented education, deep knowledge, use of teaching aids, appropriate evaluation, appropriate method.
• Maxims of teaching: known to unknown; easy to difficult; concrete to abstract; particular to general (inductive); general to particular (deductive); whole to part; part to whole; empirical to logical; psychological to logical.
• Methods: narration (describing an event or story), lecture (James Michael: a carefully planned expository address by the teacher), source method (using original sources, especially in history), journey method (learning on a visit), discussion method (for mature students), demonstration method (teacher shows an experiment), project method.
• Kilpatrick: "A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment." Steps: select topic → plan → carry out → evaluate. Examples: models of forts, collections of coins, posters.

Important terms

• Pedagogy – the science of teaching-learning methods.
• Paravidya / Aparavidya – spiritual / worldly knowledge (Vedic).
• Maxim – a guiding rule of teaching, e.g. from known to unknown.
• Inductive method – from particular examples to a general rule.
• Deductive method – from a general rule to particular examples.
• Project – a wholehearted, purposeful activity in a social setting.

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. What is pedagogy?

The science which studies the methods of teaching and learning.

Q2. Give Kilpatrick's definition of a project.

"A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment."

Q3. Explain the maxim "from particular to general" with an example.

Show examples first, then draw the rule: 4 + 0 = 4, −10 + 0 = −10, 16 − 0 = 16 → adding or subtracting zero leaves a number unchanged. This is the inductive method.

Q4. Distinguish between the Vedic and Buddhist education systems.

Vedic: aim self-realisation, Paravidya and Aparavidya. Buddhist: aim Nirvana, learning in Vihars through recitation, discussion, debate and meditation.

Q5. Explain the project method with its steps.

Definition by Kilpatrick; steps – selecting the topic, planning, implementation, evaluation; example – a model of a historical fort or a coin collection; learning by doing in a group.

Exam tip

List the nine maxims with one example each – "write the maxims of teaching with examples" is a common long question.

Quick summary

Research is the systematic, scientific search for facts and principles to solve a problem. Educational research uses the scientific method to solve problems faced by teachers and students. This chapter explains the meaning, need and characteristics of educational research, its basic concepts (problem, title, variables, objectives, assumptions, hypothesis, population, sample, tools, data analysis) and three types: fundamental, applied and action research.

Key points

• "Research" = re + search: to search again and again. It is solving a problem with the scientific method – critical, continuous and systematic study to find facts and principles.
• Educational research is a set of planned activities to find solutions to problems in education, such as difficulty with a subject or lack of concentration in class.
• Need: to solve learning and teaching problems, improve methods, curriculum and evaluation, and help educational development.
• Characteristics: solves educational problems; objective and accurate (no prejudice); purposeful; scientific approach; based on previous knowledge; systematic collection of information.
• Research problem – the difficulty to be studied. Research title – the problem stated in clear, meaningful, precise words.
• Variables – measurable things in the title that can affect or change the results (e.g. health habits, exam scores, teaching method).
• Assumption – an untested statement based on earlier experience (e.g. students are not aware of good health habits).
• Hypothesis – a probable (tentative) answer to the research problem (e.g. guiding Std XI students about health habits will improve those habits).
• Population – all the respondents from whom the sample is chosen. Sample – a representative group of the population; its results apply to the population.
• Tools of data collection – questionnaire, psychological tests, achievement tests, rating scale, etc. Data analysis – analysing the collected data according to the objectives to reach conclusions.
• Fundamental research creates laws, theories and basic knowledge (e.g. Thorndike's laws of readiness, exercise and effect). Its main aim is creating knowledge.
• Applied research uses the findings and principles of fundamental research to solve practical problems.
• Action research studies the day-to-day teaching-learning problems teachers face in their own classrooms, for immediate improvement.

Important terms

• Research – systematic, scientific search for facts to solve a problem.
• Variable – a measurable factor in research.
• Hypothesis – tentative answer to the research problem.
• Population – the whole group under study.
• Sample – a representative part of the population.
• Action research – research by a teacher on a classroom problem.

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. What is a hypothesis?

A probable or tentative answer to the research problem.

Q2. What is a sample?

A representative group selected from the population for research.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of educational research.

Aims to solve educational problems; objective and accurate; purposeful; follows the scientific method; based on previous knowledge; systematic data collection and analysis.

Q4. Write a short note on action research.

Done by teachers on problems in their own day-to-day teaching-learning (e.g. students' spelling mistakes); aims at quick, direct improvement; findings apply to that class only.

Q5. Distinguish between fundamental and applied research.

Fundamental: creates theories and knowledge, indirect impact, generalised findings (e.g. Thorndike's laws). Applied: uses those principles in practical situations, direct impact, aims at application.

Exam tip

Learn each basic concept with the health-habits example from the book – "write the names of the concepts" (hypothesis, sample, variable) is a common question.

Quick summary

Information technology has made e-learning an important new trend in education. This chapter explains the concept and characteristics of e-learning, its online and offline tools, the concept and steps of e-content development, and cyber security – the threats in the cyber world and how to stay safe.

Key points

• e-learning is learning that takes place with the help of electronic tools – mainly the computer, smartphone and internet. It is complementary to traditional learning, not a replacement.
• Characteristics: learning at your own pace, place and time; an unlimited treasure of knowledge; access to international experts; easy availability has helped universalisation of e-learning.
• Online tools: website, mobile apps, e-library, blog, wiki, video conferencing, social media. Offline tools: educational DVDs and educational computer games.
• Website – a collection of web pages with a common address and specific content; learning through it is web-based learning.
• Mobile apps – download only from an authorised store; apps collect the information on our phone with our permission, so privacy can be at risk.
• e-library – a library reached online through the internet; it stores and provides books and material at any time, removing the limits of a traditional library.
• Blog – an informally written record of day-to-day activities; each item published is a post.
• Wiki – a collaborative website on which users can modify the published information.
• Video conferencing – live audio-visual meeting between people at different places; needs a computer or phone, camera, microphone, speakers and internet.
• e-content – data available in electronic form in digital tools. Steps of development: analysis → design → development → implementation → evaluation, with review after each step. Design follows the maxims of teaching (easy to complex, known to unknown).
• Cyber security – awareness of controls and solutions to protect ourselves from cyber criminals. The computer and internet together make the cyber world.
• Cyber threats: financial, psychological, physical, threats to identity, threats to the confidentiality of data.
• Cyber bullying – mental harassment on social media using abusive words, sometimes threats. Identity theft – a fake account using someone's photo and name. Cyber stalking – tracking every act of a person on social media (e.g. sharing live location can invite theft at home).
• Too much time online reduces time for study, sports, exercise, family and friends and can cause physical and mental problems.

Important terms

• e-learning – learning with the help of electronic tools.
• e-content – educational content in electronic form.
• Post – an item published on a blog.
• Wiki – a website that users can edit together.
• Cyber stalking – secretly tracking a person's online activity.
• Cyber security – protection from crimes in the cyber world.

Key facts

Safe-use habits: strong passwords kept secret; download apps only from official stores; do not share personal details or live location; check privacy settings; report bullying through the site's help centre; limit screen time.

5 important questions

Q1. What is e-learning?

Learning that takes place with the assistance of electronic tools such as the computer, smartphone and internet.

Q2. What is a wiki?

A collaborative website on the internet where users can modify the published information.

Q3. State the limitations of learning through mobile apps.

Apps collect personal data; privacy and confidentiality can be at risk; unsafe apps from unauthorised sources; risk of addiction and distraction.

Q4. Explain the steps of e-content development.

Analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation, each followed by review – explain each in one or two lines.

Q5. Explain cyber threats in brief.

Financial (online fraud), psychological (cyber bullying, stress, overuse), physical (health effects of screen time), identity (fake accounts) and confidentiality of data (stalking, misuse of personal information).

Exam tip

Learn the five steps of e-content in order (A-D-D-I-E: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation) – flow-chart questions are common.

Quick summary

This chapter is a guide to studying well. It answers five questions: why to study, what resources to use, how to study, where to study and when to study. It also explains note-taking, learning styles, study skills and good study habits.

Key points

• Why study? To gain knowledge and information, succeed in exams, build good study habits, make educational and professional progress, earn a livelihood, raise the standard of living, develop personality and live a happy, contented life. A fast-changing lifestyle makes continuous study necessary.
• Resources for study: textbooks, reference books, self-written notes, newspapers, periodicals, audio-visual resources, online resources, offline resources and field visits.
• Textbooks give the key concepts; read the chapter deeply in class and ask the subject teacher at once about parts you do not understand. Reference books give more detail on a topic.
• Note-taking means writing the important points for memorising. Two types: notes taken during classroom teaching and notes made for each chapter after reading the textbook. We remember more through writing than through listening alone, because the brain is more active while writing.
• How to study – know yourself: find your learning style. Visual learners prefer images, diagrams, maps and charts; auditory learners prefer sound; linguistic-verbal learners prefer written text; logical-mathematical learners prefer logic and numbers; social learners prefer real social observation; self-oriented learners prefer self-reflection; kinesthetic learners learn by doing.
• Study skills: active listening, reading and comprehension, choosing a proper seat, doing it yourself, responding, questioning, taking notes, stress management and memorising.
• Correct sitting posture while studying helps concentration and health.
• Where to study? Classroom, study group, library, study room, school campus, a fixed place at home. Concentration depends on the place, because surroundings affect study positively or negatively.
• When to study? Plan a daily routine and a timetable; fix study time; be consistent.
• Do's: plan a timetable; choose good study partners or groups; appreciate and encourage yourself; concentration, consistency and practice; use the mobile for academic work.
• Don'ts: studying in a noisy, chaotic place; too much mobile, TV and social media; wasting time; thinking study is only for exams; laziness, carelessness and constant complaining.

Important terms

• Resource for study – any source from which we learn: book, notes, media, field visit.
• Note-taking – writing the main points of a topic in short for revision.
• Learning style – the way a person learns best (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, etc.).
• Study skills – abilities that make study effective, like active listening and questioning.
• Field visit – learning by visiting a real place and collecting information.

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. Name any four resources for study.

Textbooks, reference books, self-written notes and newspapers (also periodicals, audio-visual, online and offline resources, field visits).

Q2. What are the two types of notes?

Notes taken during classroom teaching, and notes made for each chapter after reading the textbook.

Q3. Why is it necessary to study?

For knowledge, exam success, good habits, educational and career progress, livelihood, better living standard, personality development and a happy life.

Q4. Explain the types of learners according to learning style.

Write the seven styles from the table with what each prefers.

Q5. Write the do's and don'ts of study.

Do's: timetable, good study group, self-encouragement, concentration, consistency, practice. Don'ts: chaotic place, too much mobile/TV/social media, wasting time, studying only for exams, laziness, complaining.

Exam tip

This chapter is practical – in opinion questions, add one example from your own study routine to each point.