Medicinal Plants: Cultivation and Practices BBO5T11

Syllabus topics (RTMNU)

• Definition, History and Importance of medicinal plants
• Contribution of prominent workers Charak, Shushrut and Nagarjuna in the field of Indian medicine
• Indigenous traditional knowledge of common five medicinal plants used in household (Zingiber officinalis, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Azadirachta indica, Piper longum and Allium sativum)
• Future Prospects and scope of medicinal plants
• Demand and supply of medicinal plants in present scenario

Definition, History and Importance of Medicinal Plants

Definition: Medicinal plants are plants that contain substances (active principles) which can be used to prevent or cure diseases, or which are starting materials for making drugs. Examples: tulsi, neem, ashwagandha, turmeric.

History:

• The Rigveda and Atharvaveda mention many healing plants; Ayurveda developed from them.
• Classical texts — Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita — describe hundreds of plant drugs.
• Other Indian systems: Siddha, Unani, Sowa-Rigpa and folk/tribal medicine.
• Worldwide, Chinese medicine, Greek medicine (Hippocrates, Dioscorides' De Materia Medica) used plants. Many modern drugs come from plants — morphine (opium poppy), quinine (Cinchona), reserpine (Rauvolfia serpentina), vincristine (Catharanthus roseus).

Importance:

1. Primary health care for a large part of rural and tribal India.
2. Source of modern medicines and lead molecules for drug research.
3. Fewer side-effects; easily available and cheap.
4. Income for farmers and tribal collectors; export earnings.
5. Used in cosmetics, food supplements, perfumes.
6. Part of cultural heritage and traditional knowledge.

Contribution of Charak, Shushrut and Nagarjuna to Indian Medicine

Indigenous Traditional Knowledge of Five Common Household Medicinal Plants

Future Prospects and Scope of Medicinal Plants

1. Growing global demand for herbal, natural and "wellness" products.
2. Drug discovery: plants are a source of new molecules for cancer, diabetes and infections.
3. Commercial cultivation gives farmers higher income than many traditional crops (e.g. ashwagandha, safed musli, aloe).
4. Export potential — India is one of the largest suppliers of herbal raw material.
5. Biotechnology: tissue culture, hairy-root culture and cell culture for producing active compounds.
6. Employment in collection, processing, packaging, marketing, research and quality testing.
7. Government support through the Ministry of AYUSH and the National Medicinal Plants Board.
8. Integration of AYUSH with modern health care.

Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in the Present Scenario

Demand side: the herbal industry (Ayurvedic, Unani, Siddha, nutraceuticals, cosmetics), households and exports need large quantities of raw material. Demand rose sharply after COVID-19 for immunity boosters such as giloy, tulsi, ashwagandha and turmeric.

Supply side:

• A large share of raw material is still collected from the wild (forests), not cultivated.
• This leads to over-harvesting, destructive collection (uprooting) and threat to species such as Rauvolfia serpentina, Saraca asoca and Nardostachys jatamansi.
• Problems: poor quality and adulteration, no standard grading, price fluctuation, middlemen, lack of storage.

Measures to balance demand and supply: promote cultivation and contract farming, good agricultural and collection practices (GACP), buy-back arrangements, sustainable harvesting, conservation, quality certification, and market information through the NMPB.

Likely exam questions

1. (Long, 8 marks) Define medicinal plants. Give their history and importance, and explain the contribution of Charaka, Sushruta and Nagarjuna to Indian medicine.
2. (Long, 8 marks) Describe the indigenous traditional knowledge of any five household medicinal plants. Add a note on the demand and supply of medicinal plants today.
3. (Short, 4 marks) Write the household uses of tulsi and neem.
4. (Short, 4 marks) Give the future prospects of medicinal plants.
5. (Short, 4 marks) Write a note on Sushruta's contribution.

Syllabus topics (RTMNU)

• Systematics, geographical distribution and uses of Ocimum tenuiflorum, Andrographis paniculata, Withania somnifera, Emblica officinalis and Curcuma longa
• Traditional Cultivation practices of Ocimum tenuiflorum, Andrographis paniculata, Withania somnifera, Emblica officinalis and Curcuma longa
• Cultivation and conservation of medicinal plants (Govt. Schemes - Ayush, National Medicinal Plant Board and Maharashtra Gene Bank)

Systematics, Geographical Distribution and Uses of Five Medicinal Plants

Traditional Cultivation Practices

1. Tulsi (Ocimum tenuiflorum):

• Soil/climate: well-drained loamy soil; tropical and subtropical climate; tolerates partial shade.
• Propagation: seeds sown in nursery beds in April–May; seedlings 6 weeks old transplanted at the start of the monsoon.
• Spacing and manure: about 40–45 cm × 40–45 cm; farmyard manure (FYM) at land preparation.
• Care: weeding, irrigation in dry spells.
• Harvest: leaves/herb cut at full bloom, first about 90 days after transplanting, then every 2–3 months; dried in shade.

2. Kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata):

• Seeds sown in nursery in May–June; transplanted in July at about 30 cm × 15–30 cm; can also be direct-sown.
• Light, well-drained soil; FYM; little irrigation in rainy season.
• Whole plant harvested at flowering (about 90–120 days) when andrographolide is highest; dried in shade.

3. Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera):

• A dryland crop of sandy-loam or light red soil with good drainage; grown in late rainy season (August–September). Mandsaur–Neemuch (MP) is the main belt.
• Seeds broadcast or sown in lines; thinning to keep proper spacing; very little irrigation and manure needed.
• Harvest 150–180 days later (January–March) when leaves dry and berries turn red; plants uprooted, roots cut, washed, dried and graded.

4. Amla (Emblica officinalis):

• Hardy tree; grows even on dry, slightly saline and alkaline soils.
• Propagated by budding (patch budding) or grafting on seedling rootstock; improved varieties — Banarasi, Chakaiya, Krishna, Kanchan, NA-7.
• Pits planted in monsoon at about 8–10 m × 8–10 m; FYM and fertiliser in pits.
• Budded plants bear from 4–5 years; fruits harvested November–February.

5. Turmeric (Curcuma longa):

• Warm humid climate; well-drained loamy or clay-loam soil; irrigated or rainfed.
• Propagated by rhizomes (mother and finger setts) planted in May–June on ridges or raised beds at about 30–45 cm × 20–25 cm.
• Heavy FYM; mulching with green leaves; earthing up; weeding.
• Harvest after 7–9 months (January–March) when leaves turn yellow and dry; rhizomes dug out.
• Curing: boiling the rhizomes, then sun-drying for 10–15 days and polishing to get commercial turmeric.

Cultivation and Conservation of Medicinal Plants: Government Schemes

1. Ministry of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa and Homoeopathy) — became a separate Ministry in November 2014. It promotes AYUSH systems and their raw material through:

• National AYUSH Mission (NAM) — includes a medicinal plants component: support for cultivation clusters, nurseries, post-harvest units and marketing.
• Quality standards (Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India), research councils (CCRAS etc.).

2. National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) — set up by the Government of India in November 2000, now under the Ministry of AYUSH. Functions:

1. Promotes cultivation and conservation (in-situ and ex-situ) of medicinal plants.
2. Financial help for herbal gardens, nurseries and cultivation projects (state boards implement).
3. Supports buy-back, marketing and price information.
4. Encourages Good Agricultural and Collection Practices and quality certification.
5. Awareness programmes, e.g. home/school herbal gardens.

3. Maharashtra Gene Bank — a Maharashtra Government programme to document and conserve the state's native genetic resources (crop varieties, medicinal plants, grasslands, fishes etc.) with the help of research institutes, NGOs and local communities, through seed banks, community gene banks and conservation plots. It helps to save local medicinal plant varieties and the traditional knowledge linked to them.

Likely exam questions

1. (Long, 8 marks) Give the systematic position, distribution, uses and traditional cultivation practices of Withania somnifera and Curcuma longa.
2. (Long, 8 marks) Explain the role of the Ministry of AYUSH, the National Medicinal Plants Board and the Maharashtra Gene Bank in cultivation and conservation of medicinal plants.
3. (Short, 4 marks) Give the medicinal uses of Andrographis paniculata.
4. (Short, 4 marks) How is amla propagated and cultivated?
5. (Short, 4 marks) What is curing of turmeric?

Syllabus topics (RTMNU)

• Cultivation of medicinal plants by using advance techniques like poly-house, Greenhouse and hydroponics
• Qualitative analysis of Curcuma longa and Ocimum tenuiflorum by using maceration, decoction, infusion, and Soxhlet extraction
• Processing and Packaging of medicinal plant products
• Marketing and Commercial aspects of medicinal plants

Cultivation by Advanced Techniques: Poly-house, Greenhouse and Hydroponics

Greenhouse: a framed structure covered with glass or transparent plastic in which temperature, humidity, light and CO₂ can be controlled, so crops grow in any season.

Poly-house: a low-cost greenhouse covered with UV-stabilised polythene film. Common in India; partly or fully climate-controlled (fans, pads, foggers, shade nets).

Advantages for medicinal plants:

1. Year-round production and higher yield per unit area.
2. Protection from rain, frost, pests and diseases; fewer pesticides — important for herbal quality.
3. Uniform, high-quality produce with more active compounds.
4. Raising seedlings and tissue-culture plants for hardening.
5. Growing high-value plants like stevia, aloe, safed musli, saffron (trials) outside their natural zone.

Limitations: high initial cost, technical skill needed, electricity and maintenance cost.

Hydroponics: growing plants without soil, with roots in a nutrient solution or in an inert medium (cocopeat, perlite, gravel) fed with nutrient solution. Types: nutrient film technique (NFT), deep water culture, drip/substrate systems, and aeroponics (roots in mist).

• Merits: saves water (recycled), no soil-borne diseases, faster growth, clean produce, exact control of nutrients — useful for leafy herbs like tulsi, mint, and for root crops grown for active principles.
• Demerits: costly set-up, power dependence, need for monitoring pH and EC (electrical conductivity).

Qualitative Analysis of Curcuma longa and Ocimum tenuiflorum: Extraction Methods

Before testing active compounds, they are extracted from the dried, powdered plant material with a solvent (water, ethanol, methanol, hexane).

1. Maceration: powdered drug is soaked in a solvent in a closed container at room temperature for 3–7 days with frequent shaking; then filtered and the residue pressed (marc). Suitable for heat-sensitive compounds.
2. Decoction: drug (usually hard parts — roots, bark, rhizome) is boiled in water for a fixed time (e.g. 15 minutes), cooled and filtered. Ayurvedic kwath/kadha is a decoction. Only for heat-stable, water-soluble compounds.
3. Infusion: boiling or cold water is poured over soft drug (leaves, flowers — e.g. tulsi leaves) and left for a short time, then filtered — like making tea.
4. Soxhlet extraction (continuous hot extraction): powdered drug in a thimble is placed in the Soxhlet extractor; solvent in the flask is heated, its vapour condenses and drips onto the drug, dissolves compounds and siphons back to the flask. The cycle repeats automatically. Efficient, needs less solvent; not for heat-sensitive compounds.

Qualitative tests on extracts (phytochemical screening):

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is used to show curcumin (yellow spot) or eugenol against a standard.

Processing and Packaging of Medicinal Plant Products

Processing steps:

1. Harvesting at the right stage (when active compounds are highest).
2. Cleaning and washing — removing soil, stones, foreign matter.
3. Garbling/sorting — removing damaged parts and other plants.
4. Drying — shade drying for leaves (to keep oils and colour), sun or mechanical drier for roots and rhizomes; moisture brought below safe level to prevent fungus.
5. Size reduction — cutting, slicing, grinding into powder.
6. Special treatment — curing of turmeric, distillation of essential oils, extraction.
7. Grading and quality testing — identity, purity, moisture, ash, active-compound content, heavy metals and pesticide residues.

Packaging: protects from moisture, light, insects and contamination. Use moisture-proof, food-grade bags (HDPE, laminated pouches), gunny bags with polythene lining for bulk, amber glass for oils. Label should show botanical name, part used, batch number, date of packing/expiry and storage conditions. Store in cool, dry, ventilated godowns.

Marketing and Commercial Aspects of Medicinal Plants

• Market channels: collector/farmer → local trader → wholesaler (big markets such as Delhi's Khari Baoli, Amritsar, Neemuch, Kolkata) → manufacturer/exporter. Many middlemen reduce farmers' share.
• Buyers: Ayurvedic and herbal companies (e.g. Dabur, Himalaya, Patanjali, Baidyanath, Vicco), nutraceutical, cosmetic and food companies, exporters.
• Contract farming and buy-back agreements give assured prices.
• Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) and co-operatives improve bargaining power.
• Value addition — powders, extracts, oils, capsules — fetches higher prices.
• Quality certification — organic certification, GACP, GMP for manufacturers — needed for export.
• Problems: price fluctuation, adulteration, lack of grading standards and market information, seasonal gluts.
• Government support: NMPB market information and e-platforms, AYUSH export promotion.

Likely exam questions

1. (Long, 8 marks) Explain cultivation of medicinal plants using poly-house, greenhouse and hydroponics with their merits and limitations.
2. (Long, 8 marks) Describe maceration, decoction, infusion and Soxhlet extraction used in the qualitative analysis of Curcuma longa and Ocimum tenuiflorum.
3. (Short, 4 marks) What is hydroponics?
4. (Short, 4 marks) Write the steps of processing of medicinal plant products.
5. (Short, 4 marks) Give the marketing problems of medicinal plants.

Syllabus topics (RTMNU)

• IPR issues related to medicinal plants
• Overview of Herbal medicine industries in India
• Contribution of national research laboratories like CDRI, CIMAP and NBRI
• Ex-situ conservation of Medicinal plants
• Role of Institutions and NGOs in medicinal plant conservation
• Medicinal plant conservation areas (MPCA) in India

IPR Issues Related to Medicinal Plants

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are legal rights given to people over the creations of their minds — inventions, designs, names — for a limited time. Main forms: patents, trademarks, copyrights, geographical indications (GI) and plant variety rights.

Issues for medicinal plants:

1. Biopiracy: patenting of traditional knowledge or biological resources of a country by outsiders without permission or benefit sharing. Famous cases:
   • Turmeric: a US patent (1995) on turmeric for wound healing was revoked in 1997 after India's CSIR showed it was old traditional knowledge.
   • Neem: a European patent on a neem-based fungicide was revoked after opposition by India (final decision in 2005).
   • Basmati rice patent case in the USA (claims largely narrowed/withdrawn).
2. Protection of traditional knowledge: India's Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL), built by CSIR with the AYUSH department (from 2001), documents traditional formulations in patent-office languages, so foreign patent offices can reject such claims.
3. Indian laws: Patents Act, 1970 (as amended) — an invention that is in effect traditional knowledge is not patentable; Biological Diversity Act, 2002 — access to biological resources needs approval of the National Biodiversity Authority and fair benefit sharing with local communities; Geographical Indications of Goods Act, 1999; Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001.
4. Benefit-sharing example: the Kani tribe of Kerala shared their knowledge of arogyapacha (Trichopus zeylanicus) with TBGRI scientists, who developed the anti-fatigue drug "Jeevani"; part of the licence fee was shared with the tribe — a model case.

Overview of Herbal Medicine Industries in India

• India has thousands of licensed AYUSH drug manufacturing units, from large companies to small and household units.
• Major companies: Dabur, Himalaya Wellness, Patanjali Ayurved, Baidyanath, Zandu (Emami), Charak Pharma, Hamdard (Unani), Kerala-based Arya Vaidya Sala (Kottakkal).
• Products: classical Ayurvedic medicines (churna, asava–arishta, bhasma), proprietary medicines, nutraceuticals, herbal cosmetics, herbal teas, essential oils.
• Strengths: rich biodiversity, ancient knowledge, low-cost manpower, rising domestic and global demand.
• Regulation: Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 and Rules (AYUSH drugs), Good Manufacturing Practices (Schedule T), pharmacopoeial standards, licensing by state authorities.
• Problems: raw-material shortage and adulteration, lack of clinical evidence for some products, quality and heavy-metal concerns, competition from China in exports.

Industry size and export figures change yearly — check the latest Ministry of AYUSH data.

Contribution of National Research Laboratories: CDRI, CIMAP and NBRI

All three are CSIR laboratories located in Lucknow (UP).

Ex-situ Conservation of Medicinal Plants

Definition: conservation of plants outside their natural habitat.

1. Botanical and herbal gardens: living collections, e.g. institutional herbal gardens, NMPB-supported gardens in colleges.
2. Seed banks: seeds stored at low temperature and moisture, e.g. the National Gene Bank at NBPGR, New Delhi.
3. Field gene banks: plants grown in fields/orchards (useful for plants with non-storable seeds or clonal propagation).
4. In-vitro conservation: tissue culture under slow-growth conditions.
5. Cryopreservation: storing tissues, embryos or seeds in liquid nitrogen at −196 °C.
6. DNA banks and pollen banks.

Merits: safe from habitat loss, material available for research and planting. Demerits: costly, genetic diversity is limited, plants lose natural interactions.

Role of Institutions and NGOs in Medicinal Plant Conservation

• Government institutions: NMPB and State Medicinal Plants Boards (funding, cultivation, conservation); Botanical Survey of India (survey, Red List); NBPGR (gene bank); CSIR labs; ICAR's Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research (Anand, Gujarat); state forest departments and universities.
• NGOs: FRLHT (Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions, Bengaluru) — set up MPCAs, documented traditional knowledge, threat assessment; WWF-India and TRAFFIC (trade monitoring); local NGOs that train communities in sustainable harvesting and run community gene banks.
• Roles: awareness, documentation of traditional knowledge, nurseries and home herbal gardens, sustainable collection, linking collectors with markets, advocacy.

Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCA) in India

MPCAs are forest areas (in-situ sites) selected for their rich medicinal plant diversity and protected for conserving those plants in their natural habitat. The network was started in the 1990s by FRLHT with state forest departments, first in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and later extended to other states (including Maharashtra) with NMPB support.

• Each MPCA is a few hundred hectares, covering different forest types and altitudes.
• No harvesting or destructive activity is allowed; local communities take part in protection.
• Used for monitoring, research, seed collection and as a gene pool for cultivation.

Likely exam questions

1. (Long, 8 marks) Discuss IPR issues related to medicinal plants with examples of biopiracy and the measures India has taken.
2. (Long, 8 marks) Describe the contribution of CDRI, CIMAP and NBRI, and explain ex-situ conservation of medicinal plants.
3. (Short, 4 marks) What is an MPCA?
4. (Short, 4 marks) Write a note on TKDL.
5. (Short, 4 marks) Give the role of NGOs in medicinal plant conservation.